Sekhmet
Sekhmet (Sakhmet) is one of the oldest known Egyptian deities. Her name is derived from the Egyptian word "Sekhem" (which means "power" or "might") and is often translated as the "Powerful One" or "She who is Powerful". She is depicted as a lion-headed woman, sometimes with the addition of a sun disc on her head. Her seated statues show her holding the ankh of life, but when she is shown striding or standing she usually holds a sceptre formed from papyrus (the symbol of northern or Lower Egypt) suggesting that she was associated primarily with the north. However, some scholars argue that the deity was introduced from Sudan (South of Egypt) where lions are more plentiful.
She was often closely associated with Hathor (the goddess of joy, music, dance, sexual love, pregnancy and birth). In this partnership, she was seen as the harsh aspect of the friendly Hathor. A temple was constructed by Amenemhet II to Sekhmet-Hathor at Kom el Hisn (Imau in the western Delta) in which she and Hathor are referred to as the "Mistress of Imau". Imau was situated near a branch of the Nile that has since shifted eastwards, but in ancient times the town was right on the edge of the desert on the route to the Libyan frontier. Clearly it was hoped that Sekhmet would protect the border.
Sekhmet's main cult centre was in Memphis (Men Nefer) where she was worshipped as "the destroyer" alongside her consort Ptah(the creator) and Nefertum (the healer).
Sekhmet was represented by the searing heat of the mid-day sun (in this aspect she was sometimes called "Nesert", the flame) and was a terrifying goddess. However, for her friends she could avert plague and cure disease. She was the patron of Physicians, and Healers and her priests became known as skilled doctors. As a result, the fearsome deity sometimes called the "lady of terror" was also known as "lady of life". Sekhmet was mentioned a number of times in the spells of The Book of the Dead as both a creative and destructive force, but above all, she is the protector of Ma'at (balance or justice) named "The One Who Loves Ma'at and Who Detests Evil".
She was also known as the "Lady of Pestilence" and the "Red Lady" (indicating her alignment with the desert) and it was thought that she could send plagues against those who angered her. When the centre of power shifted from Memphis to Thebes during the New Kingdom the Theban Triad (Amun,Mut, and Khonsu), Sekhmet's attributes were absorbed into that of Mut (who sometimes took the form of a lion).
She was associated with the goddesses given the title "Eye of Ra". According to myth, Ra became angry because mankind was not following his laws and preserving Ma'at (justice or balance). He decided to punish mankind by sending an aspect of his daughter, the"Eye of Ra". He plucked Hathor from Ureas on his brow, and sent her to earth in the form of a lion. She became Sekhmet, the "Eye of Ra" and began her rampage. The fields ran with human blood. However, Ra was not a cruel deity, and the sight of the carnage caused him to repent. He ordered her to stop, but she was in a blood lust and would not listen. So Ra poured 7,000 jugs of beer and pomegranate juice (which stained the beer blood red) in her path. She gorged on the "blood" and became so drunk she slept for three days. When she awoke, her blood lust had dissipated, and humanity was saved. In one version of the myth, Ptah is the first thing she sees on awaking and she instantly fell in love with him. Their union (creation and destruction) created Nefertum (healing) and so re-established Ma'at.
The saving of mankind was commemorated every year on the feast day of Hathor/Sekhmet. Everyone drank beer stained with pomegranate juice and worshipped "the Mistress and lady of the tomb, gracious one, destroyer of rebellion, mighty one of enchantments". A statue of Sekhmet was dressed in red facing west, while Bast was dressed in green and faced east. Bast was sometimes considered to be Sekhmet´s counterpart (or twin depending on the legend), and in the festival of Hathor they embodied the duality central to Egyptian mythology. Sekhmet represented Upper Egypt while Bast representedLower Egypt.
Sekhmet was closely associated with Kingship. She was often described as the mother of Maahes, the lion god who was a patron of the pharaoh and the pyramid texts (from dynasty five) suggest that the Pharaoh was conceived by Sekhmet. For example, one relief depicts the Pharaoh Niuserre being suckled by Sekhmet. This ancient myth is echoed in the New Kingdom reliefs in the temple of Seti I which depict the Pharaoh being suckled by Hathor whose title is "mistress of the mansion of Sekhmet". Ramesses II (Seti's son) adopted her as a symbol of his power in battle. In friezes depicting the Battle of Kadesh, Sekhmet appears on his horse, her flames scorching the bodies of enemy soldiers. But, one Pharaoh in particular seems to have had an obsession with Sekhmet. Amenhotep III (father of Akhenaten, Dynasty Eighteen) built hundreds of statues of Sekhmet in the precinct of Mut's temple (known as "Isheru") south of the Great Temple of Amun in Karnak. It is thought that there was one for every day of the year and that offerings were made every day.
She was often closely associated with Hathor (the goddess of joy, music, dance, sexual love, pregnancy and birth). In this partnership, she was seen as the harsh aspect of the friendly Hathor. A temple was constructed by Amenemhet II to Sekhmet-Hathor at Kom el Hisn (Imau in the western Delta) in which she and Hathor are referred to as the "Mistress of Imau". Imau was situated near a branch of the Nile that has since shifted eastwards, but in ancient times the town was right on the edge of the desert on the route to the Libyan frontier. Clearly it was hoped that Sekhmet would protect the border.
Sekhmet's main cult centre was in Memphis (Men Nefer) where she was worshipped as "the destroyer" alongside her consort Ptah(the creator) and Nefertum (the healer).
Sekhmet was represented by the searing heat of the mid-day sun (in this aspect she was sometimes called "Nesert", the flame) and was a terrifying goddess. However, for her friends she could avert plague and cure disease. She was the patron of Physicians, and Healers and her priests became known as skilled doctors. As a result, the fearsome deity sometimes called the "lady of terror" was also known as "lady of life". Sekhmet was mentioned a number of times in the spells of The Book of the Dead as both a creative and destructive force, but above all, she is the protector of Ma'at (balance or justice) named "The One Who Loves Ma'at and Who Detests Evil".
She was also known as the "Lady of Pestilence" and the "Red Lady" (indicating her alignment with the desert) and it was thought that she could send plagues against those who angered her. When the centre of power shifted from Memphis to Thebes during the New Kingdom the Theban Triad (Amun,Mut, and Khonsu), Sekhmet's attributes were absorbed into that of Mut (who sometimes took the form of a lion).
She was associated with the goddesses given the title "Eye of Ra". According to myth, Ra became angry because mankind was not following his laws and preserving Ma'at (justice or balance). He decided to punish mankind by sending an aspect of his daughter, the"Eye of Ra". He plucked Hathor from Ureas on his brow, and sent her to earth in the form of a lion. She became Sekhmet, the "Eye of Ra" and began her rampage. The fields ran with human blood. However, Ra was not a cruel deity, and the sight of the carnage caused him to repent. He ordered her to stop, but she was in a blood lust and would not listen. So Ra poured 7,000 jugs of beer and pomegranate juice (which stained the beer blood red) in her path. She gorged on the "blood" and became so drunk she slept for three days. When she awoke, her blood lust had dissipated, and humanity was saved. In one version of the myth, Ptah is the first thing she sees on awaking and she instantly fell in love with him. Their union (creation and destruction) created Nefertum (healing) and so re-established Ma'at.
The saving of mankind was commemorated every year on the feast day of Hathor/Sekhmet. Everyone drank beer stained with pomegranate juice and worshipped "the Mistress and lady of the tomb, gracious one, destroyer of rebellion, mighty one of enchantments". A statue of Sekhmet was dressed in red facing west, while Bast was dressed in green and faced east. Bast was sometimes considered to be Sekhmet´s counterpart (or twin depending on the legend), and in the festival of Hathor they embodied the duality central to Egyptian mythology. Sekhmet represented Upper Egypt while Bast representedLower Egypt.
Sekhmet was closely associated with Kingship. She was often described as the mother of Maahes, the lion god who was a patron of the pharaoh and the pyramid texts (from dynasty five) suggest that the Pharaoh was conceived by Sekhmet. For example, one relief depicts the Pharaoh Niuserre being suckled by Sekhmet. This ancient myth is echoed in the New Kingdom reliefs in the temple of Seti I which depict the Pharaoh being suckled by Hathor whose title is "mistress of the mansion of Sekhmet". Ramesses II (Seti's son) adopted her as a symbol of his power in battle. In friezes depicting the Battle of Kadesh, Sekhmet appears on his horse, her flames scorching the bodies of enemy soldiers. But, one Pharaoh in particular seems to have had an obsession with Sekhmet. Amenhotep III (father of Akhenaten, Dynasty Eighteen) built hundreds of statues of Sekhmet in the precinct of Mut's temple (known as "Isheru") south of the Great Temple of Amun in Karnak. It is thought that there was one for every day of the year and that offerings were made every day.
Anubis
Anubis is one of the most iconic gods of ancient Egypt. Anubis is the Greek version of his name, the ancient Egyptians knew him as Anpu (or Inpu). Anubis was an extremely ancient deity whose name appears in the oldest mastabas of the Old Kingdom and the Pyramid Texts as a guardian and protector of the dead. He was originally a god of the underworld, but became associated specifically with the embalming process and funeral rites. His name is from the same root as the word for a royal child, "inpu". However, it is also closely related to the word "inp" which means "to decay", and one versions of his name (Inp or Anp) more closely resembles that word. As a result it is possible that his name changed slightly once he was adopted as the son of the King,Osiris. He was known as "Imy-ut" ("He Who is In the Place of Embalming"), "nub-tA-djser" ("lord of the scared land").
He was initially related to the Ogdoad of Hermopolis, as the god of the underworld. In the Pyramid Texts of Unas, Anubis is associated with the Eye of Horus who acted as a guide to the dead and helped them find Osiris. In other myths Anubis and Wepwawet (Upuaut) led the deceased to the halls of Ma´at where they would be judged. Anubis watched over the whole process and ensured that the weighing of the heart was conducted correctly. He then led the innocent on to a heavenly existence and abandoned the guilty toAmmit.
The ancient Egyptians believed that the preservation of the body and the use of sweet-smelling herbs and plants would help the deceased because Anubis would sniff the mummy and only let the pure move on to paradise. According to early myths, Anubis took on and defeated the nine bows (the collective name for the traditional enemies of Egypt) gaining a further epithet "Jackal ruler of the bows".
The growing power of the Ennead of Heliopolis resulted in the merging of the two religious systems. However, Osiris was the King of the Underworld in the Ennead and he was more popular (and powerful) than Anubis. So Anubis was relegated to a god of mummification. To save face it was stated that Anubis had voluntarily given up his position when Osiris died as a mark of respect. Some myths even stated that Anubis was the son of Osiris and Nephthys (who was herself associated with the funeral rites). Anubis was still closely involved in the weighing of the heart, but was more a guardian than a ruler.
He became the patron of lost souls, including orphans, and the patron of the funeral rites. In this respect he overlapped with (and eventually absorbed) the Jackal God Wepwawet of Upper Egypt.
During the Ptolemaic Period Anubis became associated with the Greek god Hermes as the composite god Hermanubis. Hermes was messenger of the gods, while Anubis was principally guide of the dead. Hermanubis was some times given attributes of Harpokrates. He was worshipped in Rome until the second century and was popular with Rennaisance alchemists and philosophers.
Priests wore Anubis masks during mummification. However, it is not clear whether the Anubis mask was a later development influenced by the Osirian myth or whether this practice was commonplace in the earlier periods too. Anubis was also closely associated with the imiut fetish used during the embalming ritual. Anubis was credited with a high level of anatomical knowledge as a result of embalming, and so he was the patron of anaesthesiology and his priests were apparently skilled herbal healers.
Tombs in the Valley of the Kings were often sealed with an image of Anubis subduing the "nine bows" (enemies of Egypt) as "Jackal Ruler of the Bows" and it was thought that the god would protect the burial physically and spiritually. One of his epithets, "tpy-djuf" ("he who is on his mountain") refers to him guarding the necropolis and keeping watch from the hill above the Theban necropolis. He was also given the epithet "khentyamentiu" ("foremost of the westerners" i.e. the dead) because he guarded the entrance to the Underworld.
He was originally thought to be the son of Ra and Hesat, Ra's wife (who was identified with Hathor), but later myths held that he was the child of Osiris and Nephthys, or Set and Nephthys. He was sometimes described as the son of Bast because of her link to the perfumed oils used in embalming. His wife, Anput (his female aspect) was only really referred to in association with the seventeenth nome of Upper Egypt. It is thought that they were the parents of Kebechet, the goddess of the purification.
Dogs and jackals often patrolled the edges of the desert, near the cemeteries where the dead were buried, and it is thought that the first tombs were constructed to protect the dead from them. Anubis was usually thought of as a jackal (sAb), but may equally have been a wild dog (iwiw) He was usually depicted as a man with the head of a jackal and alert ears, often wearing a red ribbon, and wielding a flail. He was sometimes depicted as a jackal (such as in the beautiful examples from the tomb of Tutankhamun) but only rarely appears as a man (one example is in the cenotaph temple of Rameses II at Abydos).
His fur was generally black (not the brown associated with real jackals) because black was associated with fertility, and was closely linked to rebirth in the afterlife. In the catacombs of Alexandria he was depicted wearing Roman dress and the sun disk flanked by two cobras.
Anubis was worshipped throughout Egypt, but the center of his cult was in Hardai (Cynopolis) in the the seventeenth nome of Upper Egypt. To the east of Saqqara there was a place known as Anubeion, where a shrine and a cemetery of mummified dogs and jackals was discovered. He was also worshipped at cult centers in Abt (the the eighth nome of Upper Egypt) and Saut (Asyut, in the thirteenth nome of Upper Egypt).
He was initially related to the Ogdoad of Hermopolis, as the god of the underworld. In the Pyramid Texts of Unas, Anubis is associated with the Eye of Horus who acted as a guide to the dead and helped them find Osiris. In other myths Anubis and Wepwawet (Upuaut) led the deceased to the halls of Ma´at where they would be judged. Anubis watched over the whole process and ensured that the weighing of the heart was conducted correctly. He then led the innocent on to a heavenly existence and abandoned the guilty toAmmit.
The ancient Egyptians believed that the preservation of the body and the use of sweet-smelling herbs and plants would help the deceased because Anubis would sniff the mummy and only let the pure move on to paradise. According to early myths, Anubis took on and defeated the nine bows (the collective name for the traditional enemies of Egypt) gaining a further epithet "Jackal ruler of the bows".
The growing power of the Ennead of Heliopolis resulted in the merging of the two religious systems. However, Osiris was the King of the Underworld in the Ennead and he was more popular (and powerful) than Anubis. So Anubis was relegated to a god of mummification. To save face it was stated that Anubis had voluntarily given up his position when Osiris died as a mark of respect. Some myths even stated that Anubis was the son of Osiris and Nephthys (who was herself associated with the funeral rites). Anubis was still closely involved in the weighing of the heart, but was more a guardian than a ruler.
He became the patron of lost souls, including orphans, and the patron of the funeral rites. In this respect he overlapped with (and eventually absorbed) the Jackal God Wepwawet of Upper Egypt.
During the Ptolemaic Period Anubis became associated with the Greek god Hermes as the composite god Hermanubis. Hermes was messenger of the gods, while Anubis was principally guide of the dead. Hermanubis was some times given attributes of Harpokrates. He was worshipped in Rome until the second century and was popular with Rennaisance alchemists and philosophers.
Priests wore Anubis masks during mummification. However, it is not clear whether the Anubis mask was a later development influenced by the Osirian myth or whether this practice was commonplace in the earlier periods too. Anubis was also closely associated with the imiut fetish used during the embalming ritual. Anubis was credited with a high level of anatomical knowledge as a result of embalming, and so he was the patron of anaesthesiology and his priests were apparently skilled herbal healers.
Tombs in the Valley of the Kings were often sealed with an image of Anubis subduing the "nine bows" (enemies of Egypt) as "Jackal Ruler of the Bows" and it was thought that the god would protect the burial physically and spiritually. One of his epithets, "tpy-djuf" ("he who is on his mountain") refers to him guarding the necropolis and keeping watch from the hill above the Theban necropolis. He was also given the epithet "khentyamentiu" ("foremost of the westerners" i.e. the dead) because he guarded the entrance to the Underworld.
He was originally thought to be the son of Ra and Hesat, Ra's wife (who was identified with Hathor), but later myths held that he was the child of Osiris and Nephthys, or Set and Nephthys. He was sometimes described as the son of Bast because of her link to the perfumed oils used in embalming. His wife, Anput (his female aspect) was only really referred to in association with the seventeenth nome of Upper Egypt. It is thought that they were the parents of Kebechet, the goddess of the purification.
Dogs and jackals often patrolled the edges of the desert, near the cemeteries where the dead were buried, and it is thought that the first tombs were constructed to protect the dead from them. Anubis was usually thought of as a jackal (sAb), but may equally have been a wild dog (iwiw) He was usually depicted as a man with the head of a jackal and alert ears, often wearing a red ribbon, and wielding a flail. He was sometimes depicted as a jackal (such as in the beautiful examples from the tomb of Tutankhamun) but only rarely appears as a man (one example is in the cenotaph temple of Rameses II at Abydos).
His fur was generally black (not the brown associated with real jackals) because black was associated with fertility, and was closely linked to rebirth in the afterlife. In the catacombs of Alexandria he was depicted wearing Roman dress and the sun disk flanked by two cobras.
Anubis was worshipped throughout Egypt, but the center of his cult was in Hardai (Cynopolis) in the the seventeenth nome of Upper Egypt. To the east of Saqqara there was a place known as Anubeion, where a shrine and a cemetery of mummified dogs and jackals was discovered. He was also worshipped at cult centers in Abt (the the eighth nome of Upper Egypt) and Saut (Asyut, in the thirteenth nome of Upper Egypt).
BASTET
Bast (known as "Bastet" in later times to emphasise that the "t" was to be pronounced) was one of the most popular goddesses of ancient Egypt. She is generally thought of as a cat goddess. However, she originally had the head of a lion or a desert sand-cat and it was not until the New Kingdom that she became exclusively associated with the domesticated cat. However, even then she remained true to her origins and retained her war-like aspect. She personified the playfulness, grace, affection, and cunning of a cat as well as the fierce power of a lioness. She was also worshiped all over Lower Egypt, but her cult was centred on her temple at Bubastis in the eighteenth nome of Lower Egypt (which is now in ruins). Bubastis was the capital of ancient Egypt for a time during the Late Period, and a number of pharaohs included the goddess in their throne names.
Her name could be translated as "Devouring Lady". However, the phonetic elements "bas" are written with an oil jar (the "t" is the feminine ending) which is not used when writing the word "devour". The oil jar gives an association with perfume which is strengthened by the fact that she was thought to be the mother of Nefertum(who was a god of perfume). Thus her name implies that she is sweet and precious, but that under the surface lay the heart of a predator. Bast was depicted as a cat, or as a woman with the head of a cat, a sand cat or a lion. She is often shown holding the ankh (representing the breath of life) or the papyrus wand (representing Lower Egypt). She occasionally bears a was-scepter (signifying strength) and is often accompanied by a litter of kittens.
Cats were sacred to Bast, and to harm one was considered to be a crime against her and so very unlucky. Her priests kept sacred cats in her temple, which were considered to be incarnations of the goddess. When they died they were mummified and could be presented to the goddess as an offering. The ancient Egyptians placed great value on cats because they protected the crops and slowed the spread of disease by killing vermin. As a result, Bast was seen as a protective goddess. Evidence from tomb paintings suggests that the Egyptians hunted with their cats (who were apparently trained to retrieve prey) and also kept them as loved pets. Thus it is perhaps unsurprising that Bast was so popular. During the Old Kingdom she was considered to be the daughter of Atumin Heliopolis (because of her association with Tefnut), however, she was generally thought to be the daughter ofRa (or later Amun). She (like Sekhmet) was also the wife of Ptah and mother of Nefertum and the lion-godMaahes (Mihos) (who may have been an aspect of Nefertum).
As the daughter of Ra she was one of the goddesses known as the "Eye of Ra", a fierce protector who almost destroyed mankind but was tricked with blood-coloured beer which put her to sleep and gave her a hangover, stopping the carnage. As a result, she is linked to the other goddesses who were known as the "eye of Ra", most notably Sekhmet,Hathor, Tefnut, Nut, Wadjet and Mut. Her link with Sekhmet was the closest. Not only did both goddesses take the form of a lioness, they were both considered to be the spouse of Ptah and the mother of Nefertum and during the feast of Hathor (celebrating man's deliverance from the wrathful "Eye of Ra") an image of Sekhmet represented Upper Egypt while an image of Bast represented Lower Egypt.
She was very closely linked to Hathor. She was often depicted holding a sistrum (the sacred rattle of Hathor) and Denderah (the home of the cult centre of Hathor in the sixth nome of Upper Egypt) was sometimes known as the "Southern Bubastis". This association was clearly ancient as the two appear together in the valley temple of Khafre at Giza. Hathor represents Upper Egypt and Bast represents Lower Egypt. One of her epithets was "lady of Asheru". Asheru was the name of the sacred lake in the temple of Mut at Karnak, and Bast was given the epithet because of her connection with Mut, who occasionally took the form of a cat or a lion. Within Mut's temple there are a number of depictions of the pharaoh celebrating a ritual race in the company of Bast. In this temple Bast is given the epithet "Sekhet-neter" - the "Divine Field" (Egypt).
She was also associated with the lion-headed goddess Pakhet of Speos Artemidos (cave of Artemis) near Beni Hassan. The cave was given the name because Bast (and her aspect Pakhet) was identified by the Greeks with Artemis, the hunter. However, the two goddesses were not that similar as Artemis was celibate while Bast was associated with fun and sexuality. However, the connection with Tefnut and Bast's potentially warlike aspect probably contributed to this apparently strange connection. After all, even the smallest house cat is a skilled hunter. The Greeks thought that Bast should have a twin brother, as Artemis had her brother Apollo. They linked Apollo with Heru-sa-Aset (Horus son of Isis), so Bast's name was tinkered with to mean "soul of Isis" (ba-Aset) changing her into a form of this popular goddess. They also decided that Bast was a moon goddess, although she was originally considered to be the daughter of Ra and the "Eye of Ra".
Her name could be translated as "Devouring Lady". However, the phonetic elements "bas" are written with an oil jar (the "t" is the feminine ending) which is not used when writing the word "devour". The oil jar gives an association with perfume which is strengthened by the fact that she was thought to be the mother of Nefertum(who was a god of perfume). Thus her name implies that she is sweet and precious, but that under the surface lay the heart of a predator. Bast was depicted as a cat, or as a woman with the head of a cat, a sand cat or a lion. She is often shown holding the ankh (representing the breath of life) or the papyrus wand (representing Lower Egypt). She occasionally bears a was-scepter (signifying strength) and is often accompanied by a litter of kittens.
Cats were sacred to Bast, and to harm one was considered to be a crime against her and so very unlucky. Her priests kept sacred cats in her temple, which were considered to be incarnations of the goddess. When they died they were mummified and could be presented to the goddess as an offering. The ancient Egyptians placed great value on cats because they protected the crops and slowed the spread of disease by killing vermin. As a result, Bast was seen as a protective goddess. Evidence from tomb paintings suggests that the Egyptians hunted with their cats (who were apparently trained to retrieve prey) and also kept them as loved pets. Thus it is perhaps unsurprising that Bast was so popular. During the Old Kingdom she was considered to be the daughter of Atumin Heliopolis (because of her association with Tefnut), however, she was generally thought to be the daughter ofRa (or later Amun). She (like Sekhmet) was also the wife of Ptah and mother of Nefertum and the lion-godMaahes (Mihos) (who may have been an aspect of Nefertum).
As the daughter of Ra she was one of the goddesses known as the "Eye of Ra", a fierce protector who almost destroyed mankind but was tricked with blood-coloured beer which put her to sleep and gave her a hangover, stopping the carnage. As a result, she is linked to the other goddesses who were known as the "eye of Ra", most notably Sekhmet,Hathor, Tefnut, Nut, Wadjet and Mut. Her link with Sekhmet was the closest. Not only did both goddesses take the form of a lioness, they were both considered to be the spouse of Ptah and the mother of Nefertum and during the feast of Hathor (celebrating man's deliverance from the wrathful "Eye of Ra") an image of Sekhmet represented Upper Egypt while an image of Bast represented Lower Egypt.
She was very closely linked to Hathor. She was often depicted holding a sistrum (the sacred rattle of Hathor) and Denderah (the home of the cult centre of Hathor in the sixth nome of Upper Egypt) was sometimes known as the "Southern Bubastis". This association was clearly ancient as the two appear together in the valley temple of Khafre at Giza. Hathor represents Upper Egypt and Bast represents Lower Egypt. One of her epithets was "lady of Asheru". Asheru was the name of the sacred lake in the temple of Mut at Karnak, and Bast was given the epithet because of her connection with Mut, who occasionally took the form of a cat or a lion. Within Mut's temple there are a number of depictions of the pharaoh celebrating a ritual race in the company of Bast. In this temple Bast is given the epithet "Sekhet-neter" - the "Divine Field" (Egypt).
She was also associated with the lion-headed goddess Pakhet of Speos Artemidos (cave of Artemis) near Beni Hassan. The cave was given the name because Bast (and her aspect Pakhet) was identified by the Greeks with Artemis, the hunter. However, the two goddesses were not that similar as Artemis was celibate while Bast was associated with fun and sexuality. However, the connection with Tefnut and Bast's potentially warlike aspect probably contributed to this apparently strange connection. After all, even the smallest house cat is a skilled hunter. The Greeks thought that Bast should have a twin brother, as Artemis had her brother Apollo. They linked Apollo with Heru-sa-Aset (Horus son of Isis), so Bast's name was tinkered with to mean "soul of Isis" (ba-Aset) changing her into a form of this popular goddess. They also decided that Bast was a moon goddess, although she was originally considered to be the daughter of Ra and the "Eye of Ra".
RA
Ra (Re) was the primary name of the sun god of Ancient Egypt. He was often considered to be the King of the Gods and thus the patron of the pharaoh and one of the central gods of the Egyptian pantheon. He was also described as the creator of everything. Ra was so powerful and popular and his worship was so enduring that some modern commentators have argued that the Egyptian religion was in fact a form of veiled monotheism with Ra as the one god. This seems to be somewhat of an overstatement, but underlines his primary position within religious texts throughout Egyptian history.
It is sometimes proposed that the pyramids represent the rays of light extending from the sun and thus these great monuments connected the king with Ra. The Egyptians also built solar temples in honour of Ra. Unlike the standard type of Egyptian temple, these temples were open to the sunlight and did not feature a statue of the god because he was represented by the sunlight itself. Instead the temple centred on an obelisk and altar. The most significant early solar temple is thought to be the one erected in Heliopolis, sometimes known as "Benu-Phoenix". Its location was thought to be the spot where Ra first emerged at the beginning of creation, and the city took its name ("Iwn") from the word for a pillar.
Ra was an ancient god, but not the oldest of the gods; the first references to Ra date from the Second Dynasty. However, by the Fifth Dynasty he was a powerful god who was closely associated with the pharaoh. The Pharaoh was already seen as the embodiment of Horus and so the two gods became linked, sometimes as the composite deity Ra-Horakhty ("Ra (is) Horus of the Horizon"). Ra also came to be associated with Atum (the creator god of the Ennead in Heliopolis) as Atum-Ra. By the Fifth Dynasty the pharaoh was referred to as the son of Ra and the name of Ra was incorporated into the throne name of every king from that point onwards. Many Old Kingdom pharaohs built sun temples in which to worship Ra.
The Middle Kingdom saw the rise to prominence of Amun of Thebes. Although Ra kept his association with the pharaoh, he was to some degree absorbed by Amun as Amun-Ra . However, the priests of Amun became very wealthy and influential and so some of the pharaohs of the New Kingdom chose to elevate Ra in his stead, perhaps partly because he was already closely associated with the pharaoh. For example, Thuthmosis promoted Re-Horakhty as his favoured god while Amenhotep III took the epithet "the dazzling sun" and named his wife's pleasure boat "the Aten Gleams". His successor (and probable son) Akhenaten went one step further and rejected Amun and many of the other gods in favour of The Aten (a solar god).
The worship of the Egyptian God Ra was at its peak during the New Kingdom. Many of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings (dating from this period) included depictions of Ra's journey through the underworld over twelve "hours" or stages. In the fifth hour, Ra dies and is reunited with Osiris in the underworld, but in the twelfth hour he is reborn as the scarab (Khepri). Sun temples were again constructed during the New Kingdom (although those of the Armarna Period are dedicated to the The Aten).
Amun-Ra was also popular in Nubia and was the chief deity of the Nubian Kingdom of Napata during the Twentyfifth Dynasty. The Greeks associated Ra with Zeus and so he remained popular during the Ptolemaic Period. However, after this point Egypt was governed by a series of foreign rulers who were not associated with the god of the pharaohs and so his popularity declined.
Ra was often described as the father of the gods. He was sometimes thought to be married to Hesat or Hathor although the latter is usually referred to as his daughter. As his worship was pre-dated by that of some of his "children" (such as Hathor andHorus) it seems likely that he took on this role when he was associated with the creator god Atum.
According to the Pyramid Texts, Ra (as Atum) emerged from the waters of Nun as a benben stone (an obelisk-like pillar). He then spat forth Shu (air) and Tefnut(moisture), and Tefnut in turn gave birth to Geb (earth) and Nut (sky). Ra tried to separate Geb and Nut by placing Shu between them and decreed that Nut could not give birth on any day of the calendar. However, Thoth won an extra five days from the moon so that Nut could give birth to Osiris, Set, Isis, Nephthys and Horus the Elder.
It was thought that Ra "died" or was swallowed by Nut every evening as the sun dipped below the horizon. He travelled through the world of the dead by night and was then reborn in the morning (making Nut both his granddaughter and his mother).
At sunset he was linked to Horakhty (Horus on the Horizon) and Atum and at dawn he was linked to the scarab beetle, Khepri ("the Emerging One") and Nefertum
Ra-Horakhty-Atum was associated with Osiris as the manifestation of the sun at night. When Osiris was murdered by his brother Set, he became the God of the Underworld. Thus the Pharaoh was the son of Ra who ruled as the living Horus and who becameOsiris on his death.
According to another myth, Ra ruled on earth as Pharaoh until he became old and weary. The people had lost respect for him and no longer obeyed his laws and so Ra decided that they should be punished. He sent his "Eye" to teach them a lesson, but then had to arrange to get her drunk to prevent her killing everyone. Once the danger had been averted, Ra decided it was time for him to leave the world to Horus ( who took his place as the king) and travel across the sky on Nut's back.
It is sometimes proposed that the pyramids represent the rays of light extending from the sun and thus these great monuments connected the king with Ra. The Egyptians also built solar temples in honour of Ra. Unlike the standard type of Egyptian temple, these temples were open to the sunlight and did not feature a statue of the god because he was represented by the sunlight itself. Instead the temple centred on an obelisk and altar. The most significant early solar temple is thought to be the one erected in Heliopolis, sometimes known as "Benu-Phoenix". Its location was thought to be the spot where Ra first emerged at the beginning of creation, and the city took its name ("Iwn") from the word for a pillar.
Ra was an ancient god, but not the oldest of the gods; the first references to Ra date from the Second Dynasty. However, by the Fifth Dynasty he was a powerful god who was closely associated with the pharaoh. The Pharaoh was already seen as the embodiment of Horus and so the two gods became linked, sometimes as the composite deity Ra-Horakhty ("Ra (is) Horus of the Horizon"). Ra also came to be associated with Atum (the creator god of the Ennead in Heliopolis) as Atum-Ra. By the Fifth Dynasty the pharaoh was referred to as the son of Ra and the name of Ra was incorporated into the throne name of every king from that point onwards. Many Old Kingdom pharaohs built sun temples in which to worship Ra.
The Middle Kingdom saw the rise to prominence of Amun of Thebes. Although Ra kept his association with the pharaoh, he was to some degree absorbed by Amun as Amun-Ra . However, the priests of Amun became very wealthy and influential and so some of the pharaohs of the New Kingdom chose to elevate Ra in his stead, perhaps partly because he was already closely associated with the pharaoh. For example, Thuthmosis promoted Re-Horakhty as his favoured god while Amenhotep III took the epithet "the dazzling sun" and named his wife's pleasure boat "the Aten Gleams". His successor (and probable son) Akhenaten went one step further and rejected Amun and many of the other gods in favour of The Aten (a solar god).
The worship of the Egyptian God Ra was at its peak during the New Kingdom. Many of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings (dating from this period) included depictions of Ra's journey through the underworld over twelve "hours" or stages. In the fifth hour, Ra dies and is reunited with Osiris in the underworld, but in the twelfth hour he is reborn as the scarab (Khepri). Sun temples were again constructed during the New Kingdom (although those of the Armarna Period are dedicated to the The Aten).
Amun-Ra was also popular in Nubia and was the chief deity of the Nubian Kingdom of Napata during the Twentyfifth Dynasty. The Greeks associated Ra with Zeus and so he remained popular during the Ptolemaic Period. However, after this point Egypt was governed by a series of foreign rulers who were not associated with the god of the pharaohs and so his popularity declined.
Ra was often described as the father of the gods. He was sometimes thought to be married to Hesat or Hathor although the latter is usually referred to as his daughter. As his worship was pre-dated by that of some of his "children" (such as Hathor andHorus) it seems likely that he took on this role when he was associated with the creator god Atum.
According to the Pyramid Texts, Ra (as Atum) emerged from the waters of Nun as a benben stone (an obelisk-like pillar). He then spat forth Shu (air) and Tefnut(moisture), and Tefnut in turn gave birth to Geb (earth) and Nut (sky). Ra tried to separate Geb and Nut by placing Shu between them and decreed that Nut could not give birth on any day of the calendar. However, Thoth won an extra five days from the moon so that Nut could give birth to Osiris, Set, Isis, Nephthys and Horus the Elder.
It was thought that Ra "died" or was swallowed by Nut every evening as the sun dipped below the horizon. He travelled through the world of the dead by night and was then reborn in the morning (making Nut both his granddaughter and his mother).
At sunset he was linked to Horakhty (Horus on the Horizon) and Atum and at dawn he was linked to the scarab beetle, Khepri ("the Emerging One") and Nefertum
Ra-Horakhty-Atum was associated with Osiris as the manifestation of the sun at night. When Osiris was murdered by his brother Set, he became the God of the Underworld. Thus the Pharaoh was the son of Ra who ruled as the living Horus and who becameOsiris on his death.
According to another myth, Ra ruled on earth as Pharaoh until he became old and weary. The people had lost respect for him and no longer obeyed his laws and so Ra decided that they should be punished. He sent his "Eye" to teach them a lesson, but then had to arrange to get her drunk to prevent her killing everyone. Once the danger had been averted, Ra decided it was time for him to leave the world to Horus ( who took his place as the king) and travel across the sky on Nut's back.
ISIS
Isis was one of the oldest gods or goddesses of ancient Egypt but her origins are unclear. She is sometimes thought to have originated in the Sinai but is is also likely that she was first worshipped as a fetish in the Delta area of Lower Egypt around Busiris, the location of the oldest known cult center to Osiris. However, her cult was not limited to one area, but worshipped in every temple in the land. In fact, the first shrine dedicated specifically to her was built by Nectanebo II in Dynasty Thirty!
The cult of Isis, the Egyptian goddess, was very popular throughout Egypt, and beyond and she became a goddess of almost limitless attributes. Isis was her Greek name, but she was known to the ancient Egyptians as Aset (or Ast, Iset, Uset), which is usually translated as "(female) of throne" or "Queen of the throne". Her original headdress was an empty throne and as the personification of the throne she was an important source of the Pharaoh's power (as descent was to some degree matrilineal). However, the exact meaning of her name is still disputed. Plutarch suggested that her name meant "knowledge" but another possible translation is "(female) of flesh", i.e. mortal, suggesting that although she was the Queen of the Gods, she had once been a mortal woman. This certainly fits with the mythology surrounding the Ennead which state that Isis and her husband, Osiris, had actually ruled Egypt before the time of the pharaohs. However, the Book of the Dead describes her as "She who gives birth to heaven and earth, knows the orphan, knows the widow, seeks justice for the poor, and shelter for the weak" suggesting that she was considered to be more than simply a mere mortal. Isis was known as "Hent" (Queen) in every Nome, but she was also known by a bewildering number of names and titles throughout ancient Egypt and took on the aspects of many other goddesses. This resulted in a fairly complex relationship with the other gods and goddesses.
Isis was a member of the Helioploitan Ennead, as the daughter of Geb (Earth) and Nut (Sky) and the sister and wife of Osiris and the sister of Set,Nephthys and (sometimes) Horus the Elder. However, because of her association with the throne Isis was sometimes considered to be the wife of Horus the Elder- the patron of the living Pharaoh. Ra and Horus were closely associated during early Egyptian history, while Isis was closely associated withHathor (who was described as the mother or the wife of Horus or Ra) and so Isis could also be considered to be the wife of Ra or Horus.
However, when Ra and Atum (the Ennead of Helipolis) merged, Isis became both the daughter of Atum(-Ra) and the wife of (Atum-)Ra. This situation was clarified by crediting Isis as the granddaughter of Ra-Atum, the mother of Horus (the child) and the wife of Osiris.
The adoption of the mythology of Heliopolis as the national religion promoted Osiris to the position of King of the Netherworld. However, this position was already held by Anubis. As a result, a myth developed that Nepthys became pregnant by Osiris and gave birth to Anubis. There are various versions of the tale, in some cases Osiris genuinely mistakes Nepthys for his wife Isis (the two were depicted as being very similar in appearance), in other cases Nepthys intentionally tricks Osiris. Either way, Isis adopted her husband's illegitimate child to protect her sister and the child from the rage of her brother Set and apparently was happy to forgive the adultery.
The Egyptians highly valued family life and Isis was the paragon of motherly virtues. From the New Kingdom, Isis was considered to be the archetypal mother and was a patron goddess of childbirth and motherhood. As Horus was the patron of the living Pharaoh, Isis could be described as the mother of the Pharaoh. The image of Isis and the infant Horus was extremely popular in Egyptian art and it is generally accepted that they had a huge influence on the iconography of Mary and the infant Jesus Christ in the early Christian Church. However, while Mary is perhaps best described as a passive vessel who was not considered to have any power independent of her child, Isis was not only a mother, but a confident and skilled queen and a very powerful sorceress.
Isis knew the secret name of Ra, which gave her an incredible amount of power. The Pyramid Texts imply that Isis prophesised the murder of Osiris (although she was unable to prevent it) and her power even extended beyond the grave. At her insistence Anubis and Thoth devised the first ritual of mummification to give Osiris life after death and she herself managed to magically concieve her son Horus by hovering over the body of her dead husband. She was one of the four protector goddesses (along with Bast, Nephthys, and Hathor, or Nephthys, Selket and Neith) who protected the sarcophagus and the Canopic jars (which contained the internal organs). It was thought that she helped the deceased on their difficult journey into the afterlife and she was sometimes named as one of the judges of the dead.
Her priestesses were skilled healers and midwives, and were rumoured to have magical powers. Like the priestesses of Hathor the could interpret dreams, but they were also thought to be able to control the weather by braiding or combing their hair (a superstition which was common in many later seafaring cultures). During thePtolemaic period she was linked with Astarte as the patron goddess of sailors as it was hoped that she would provide a favourable wind. Her loyalty to her murdered husband and infant child, her courage in defying Set and her warmth and compassion towards all people (even Set) made Isis one of the most beloved goddesses in Egypt, and indeed the ancient world.
Isis was often represented as a goddess wearing a headdress representing a throne (which was one of the hieroglyphs in her name). She was also frequently depicted as a human queen wearing the vulture headdress with a royal serpent on the brow. In these two forms she occasionally carried a lotus bud or the glyph of the sycamore tree. She was also commonly depicted as a queen or goddess wearing the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt along with the feather of Ma'at. There are also numerous representations of Isis with her son, Horus, which bear a marked similarity to later images of the virgin Mary with baby Jesus.
Isis was also depicted as a winged goddess or a kite (one of her sacred animals). In this form her wings spread a heavenly scent across the land and brought fresh air into the underworld. From the New Kingdom she also adopted the vulture headdress with cow's horns on either side of a sun disk between them. Occasionally she was depicted as a cow or a woman with a cow's head. In her form of the snake goddess Thermouthis she was depicted as a cobra crowned with the throne headdress.
The Tjet amulet was also known as the "Knot of Isis", "Buckle of Isis", or the "Blood of Isis". Although the meaning of the Tjet is fairly obscure, it is thought that it may have represented a woman's sanitary cloth (hence the connection with blood) or may relate to the magical power in a knot (again linking it with Isis the great magician). The Tjet was used in the funerary rites and seems to have been linked with the ideas of resurection and rebirth.
She was sometimes associated with Khnum in representing Upper Egypt, just as Ptah-Tanen was associated with Nephthys in representing Lower Egypt.
The cult of Isis, the Egyptian goddess, was very popular throughout Egypt, and beyond and she became a goddess of almost limitless attributes. Isis was her Greek name, but she was known to the ancient Egyptians as Aset (or Ast, Iset, Uset), which is usually translated as "(female) of throne" or "Queen of the throne". Her original headdress was an empty throne and as the personification of the throne she was an important source of the Pharaoh's power (as descent was to some degree matrilineal). However, the exact meaning of her name is still disputed. Plutarch suggested that her name meant "knowledge" but another possible translation is "(female) of flesh", i.e. mortal, suggesting that although she was the Queen of the Gods, she had once been a mortal woman. This certainly fits with the mythology surrounding the Ennead which state that Isis and her husband, Osiris, had actually ruled Egypt before the time of the pharaohs. However, the Book of the Dead describes her as "She who gives birth to heaven and earth, knows the orphan, knows the widow, seeks justice for the poor, and shelter for the weak" suggesting that she was considered to be more than simply a mere mortal. Isis was known as "Hent" (Queen) in every Nome, but she was also known by a bewildering number of names and titles throughout ancient Egypt and took on the aspects of many other goddesses. This resulted in a fairly complex relationship with the other gods and goddesses.
Isis was a member of the Helioploitan Ennead, as the daughter of Geb (Earth) and Nut (Sky) and the sister and wife of Osiris and the sister of Set,Nephthys and (sometimes) Horus the Elder. However, because of her association with the throne Isis was sometimes considered to be the wife of Horus the Elder- the patron of the living Pharaoh. Ra and Horus were closely associated during early Egyptian history, while Isis was closely associated withHathor (who was described as the mother or the wife of Horus or Ra) and so Isis could also be considered to be the wife of Ra or Horus.
However, when Ra and Atum (the Ennead of Helipolis) merged, Isis became both the daughter of Atum(-Ra) and the wife of (Atum-)Ra. This situation was clarified by crediting Isis as the granddaughter of Ra-Atum, the mother of Horus (the child) and the wife of Osiris.
The adoption of the mythology of Heliopolis as the national religion promoted Osiris to the position of King of the Netherworld. However, this position was already held by Anubis. As a result, a myth developed that Nepthys became pregnant by Osiris and gave birth to Anubis. There are various versions of the tale, in some cases Osiris genuinely mistakes Nepthys for his wife Isis (the two were depicted as being very similar in appearance), in other cases Nepthys intentionally tricks Osiris. Either way, Isis adopted her husband's illegitimate child to protect her sister and the child from the rage of her brother Set and apparently was happy to forgive the adultery.
The Egyptians highly valued family life and Isis was the paragon of motherly virtues. From the New Kingdom, Isis was considered to be the archetypal mother and was a patron goddess of childbirth and motherhood. As Horus was the patron of the living Pharaoh, Isis could be described as the mother of the Pharaoh. The image of Isis and the infant Horus was extremely popular in Egyptian art and it is generally accepted that they had a huge influence on the iconography of Mary and the infant Jesus Christ in the early Christian Church. However, while Mary is perhaps best described as a passive vessel who was not considered to have any power independent of her child, Isis was not only a mother, but a confident and skilled queen and a very powerful sorceress.
Isis knew the secret name of Ra, which gave her an incredible amount of power. The Pyramid Texts imply that Isis prophesised the murder of Osiris (although she was unable to prevent it) and her power even extended beyond the grave. At her insistence Anubis and Thoth devised the first ritual of mummification to give Osiris life after death and she herself managed to magically concieve her son Horus by hovering over the body of her dead husband. She was one of the four protector goddesses (along with Bast, Nephthys, and Hathor, or Nephthys, Selket and Neith) who protected the sarcophagus and the Canopic jars (which contained the internal organs). It was thought that she helped the deceased on their difficult journey into the afterlife and she was sometimes named as one of the judges of the dead.
Her priestesses were skilled healers and midwives, and were rumoured to have magical powers. Like the priestesses of Hathor the could interpret dreams, but they were also thought to be able to control the weather by braiding or combing their hair (a superstition which was common in many later seafaring cultures). During thePtolemaic period she was linked with Astarte as the patron goddess of sailors as it was hoped that she would provide a favourable wind. Her loyalty to her murdered husband and infant child, her courage in defying Set and her warmth and compassion towards all people (even Set) made Isis one of the most beloved goddesses in Egypt, and indeed the ancient world.
Isis was often represented as a goddess wearing a headdress representing a throne (which was one of the hieroglyphs in her name). She was also frequently depicted as a human queen wearing the vulture headdress with a royal serpent on the brow. In these two forms she occasionally carried a lotus bud or the glyph of the sycamore tree. She was also commonly depicted as a queen or goddess wearing the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt along with the feather of Ma'at. There are also numerous representations of Isis with her son, Horus, which bear a marked similarity to later images of the virgin Mary with baby Jesus.
Isis was also depicted as a winged goddess or a kite (one of her sacred animals). In this form her wings spread a heavenly scent across the land and brought fresh air into the underworld. From the New Kingdom she also adopted the vulture headdress with cow's horns on either side of a sun disk between them. Occasionally she was depicted as a cow or a woman with a cow's head. In her form of the snake goddess Thermouthis she was depicted as a cobra crowned with the throne headdress.
The Tjet amulet was also known as the "Knot of Isis", "Buckle of Isis", or the "Blood of Isis". Although the meaning of the Tjet is fairly obscure, it is thought that it may have represented a woman's sanitary cloth (hence the connection with blood) or may relate to the magical power in a knot (again linking it with Isis the great magician). The Tjet was used in the funerary rites and seems to have been linked with the ideas of resurection and rebirth.
She was sometimes associated with Khnum in representing Upper Egypt, just as Ptah-Tanen was associated with Nephthys in representing Lower Egypt.
OSIRIS
Osiris (Asir) was the first son of Geb and Nut and the brother of Set, Horus (the elder), Isis and Nephthys. He was one of the most prominent gods of the Heliopolitan Ennead, but his worship pre-dated the development of this fairly complex philosophy. Although Atum was installed as the head of the Ennead by the priests of Heliopolis, Osiris was considered to be the king of the underworld, and is the only deity who is referred to simply as "god". This gives us some indication of his prominence and popularity.
The oldest religious texts known to us refer to him as the great god of the dead, who once possessed human form and lived upon earth. After his murder by Set he became the king of the underworld and presided over the judgment of dead souls. In order to enter his kingdom, the deceased had to undertake a perilous journey (aided by spells and amulets) to the hall of judgment where their heart was balanced against the feather of Ma'at (justice or balance). It is important to distinguish this from the Christian view of judgment. The ancient Egyptians were a pragmatic people. A person was not expected to be perfect, just balanced. An example of this is the "negative confession" (in which the deceased listed all of the evil things he had not done during his lifetime, i.e. "I never murdered anyone") which indicates that it was more a case of convincing Osiris that you deserved admission rather than passively awaiting judgment.
As Osiris had been a good and beneficent ruler during his lifetime, his presence in the underworld no doubt gave the people great comfort. Furthermore, the only barriers to entrance were those relating to the journey to the hall of judgment and the preservation of the body (in which the Ba resided) and your name. The spells needed to pass through Duat (the underworld) were described in great detail in the pyramid and coffin texts, "the book of coming forth by day" (also known as "the book of the dead") and the "book of gates". A decent burial combined with these spells pretty much guaranteed you would be welcomed into a blissful existence which bore a striking similarity to the ancient Egyptian's everyday life (shorn of any problemsOsiris was also a god of agriculture.
This may seem rather strange as he was dead, and technically infertile. However, it actually makes a lot of sense when you consider the death and rebirth inherent in the agricultural cycle of planting and harvesting grain. Every harvest, the god was symbolically killed and his body broken on the threshing room floor, but after the inundation life would return to the land and the crops would grow again. Legend held that the ancient Egyptians had been cannibals until Osiris developed agriculture and he and Isis persuaded them to cease that unpleasant habit. There is no evidence that the ancient peoples were in fact cannibals, but the myth underlined the notion that Osiris brought order from chaos and established the culture which formed the basis of their successful and durable civilisation.
Osiris was usually depicted as a mummified king, complete with the ceremonial (curved) beard, crown, flail, and crozier. His skin is generally green or black, to represent the fact that he is dead. He usually wears the white crown of Upper Egypt (the south) or the Atef crown (the white crown with a plume of feathers on each side and a disc at the top). The feathers on the Atef crown are thought to represent Djedu (Busiris), the cult center of Osiris.
His kind smile confirms that he is not a deity to be feared. In fact, Osiris represented the Egyptian belief in rebirth and their feeling that order and justice persevered beyond the grave. "Corn mummies" made of seeded dirt were molded to represent Osiris and interred with the deceased. They would germinate in the darkness of the tomb and illustrate the concept of life from death. Some fine examples made of barley and emmer were found in Tutankhamen's tomb.
During the fourth month of the season of Akhet (emergence) a number of festivals were celebrated at all the chief sanctuaries of Osiris in Egypt, to commemorate the events of Osiris' life, death, and rebirth. Spectators took part in the "passion plays" and everyone seems to have had a great time. The many festivals are recorded on a stele established by Ikhernofret (a prince who acted as Senusert III's chief treasurer).
Set had been jealous of his brother Osiris' power and popularity for some time, and he lusted after his brother's wife, Isis (Aset). When Osiris decided to travel the world to bring civilisation to its people, he made Isis Regent of Egypt instead of Set. This was the last straw. Set was strong and brave (he was not two-dimensionally "evil") but he had a terrible temper and he vowed to kill his brother and take the power he considered to be rightfully his. Set invited Osiris to a banquet and had a beautiful cedarwood and ebony chest made just for the occasion. He offered the chest to anyone who could fit into it. Just as Set planned, none of the other guests fitted the chest perfectly, the only person left to try was Osiris. When he lay down in the chest (which had been made to fit him), Set slammed on the lid and nailed it down. He sealed it with molten led and threw it in the Nile.
The chest was swept out to sea and landed on the coast near Byblos. The instant it touched the land, a huge Tamarisk tree sprouted up to protect it. The tree grew so large that the king of Byblos trimmed it and set it up as a pillar in his palace. Isis tracked his body to Byblos and persuaded the king to give it to her (by saving a child from a snake bite - easy for the "queen of heaven"). She took her husband's corpse back to Egypt and used magic to concieve his child, Horus (other accounts suggest she was already pregnant when he died). However, Set found Osiris's body unattended while Isis took the infant Horus to be cared by Wadjet (or Udjat, "she who is green", the cobra goddess of Lower Egypt).
He cut the corpse into fourteen (or sixteen) parts and distributed them around Egypt. Isis was distraught, and enlisted the help of her sister (and Set's wife) Nephthys. They found all but one of the pieces. The missing part was his penis (poor guy) which was apparently swallowed by a fish sacred to Set. Isis and Nephthys mourned over the dead body of their brother and Ra took pity on them. He sent Anubis to prepare Osiris for the first ever mummification, and instructed Thoth, Isis and Nephthys to piece the body back together. Isis transformed into a kite (common small bird) and breathed life into him, but it was not sufficient for him to take his place with the living. Instead he travelled to the underworld, a seemingly dark and desolate place. But Re reassured him that he would find peace and contentment as the king of the dead, and his son Horus would rule over the living until the time that Re chose to unmake his creation and return everything to the nothingness from whence it came.
Later, when the theology of Heliopolis (the Ennead) and Hermopolis (the Ogdoad) were merged, Osiris tookover Anubis's role as the god of the underworld (although he remained central to funerary rights). It was belived that Anubis had given way to Osiris out of respect, and a myth developed that Anubis was in fact the son of Osiris by Nephyths (his sister and wife of his brother Set). Nephthys was not happy with Set (who was described as being ugly) and so she sneakily disguised herself as her sisterIsis and slept with Osiris. Nephythys was considered to be barren, but despite this she concieved Anubis. Surprisingly, Isis does not seem to get annoyed at either party, but unsurprisingly Set was furious. Thus the myth provided a more personal reason for his vendetta against Osiris. The myth is also thought to relate to one of the desert flowers common in ancient Egypt which did not bloom for years on end. However, a large innundation would bring it to life. Thus the barren desert (in this case Nepthys) became fertile, and Osiris' connection with the life-giving Nile is strengthened.
There are many separate hawk deities called Horus who are often confused. In the theology of Heliopolis, Horus the child was the child of Isis and Osiris. However, in Hermopolis Horus the elder was the son or husband of Hathor (her name is Hwt-Hor, or "the house of Horus"). When the two theologies merged, Hathor and Isis became closely associated (both sometimes appear wearing a sun disk and bovine horns) and Horus the elder became the brother of Osiris and Set (making him the uncle ofHorus son of Isis and Osiris). Thus Horus could be a solar deity (Horus the Elder or Haroeris) or an Osirian and hence stellar deity (often called Horus the child, Harpokrates or Harsiesis, horus son of Isis).
This confused the hell out of Plutarch (the Greek writer), who made up the story that Horus the elder was concieved by Isis and Osiris while they were in Nut's womb! The pyramid texts confirm their separate identities as Horus the Elder warns the other gods not to get involved with Horus the younger and his "evil things" (unfotuntely no details of these "things" are given). Set was also the enemy of Horus the Elder, and some Egyptologists suggest that the battle for control of Egypt was actually played out between those two deities, with Osiris being inserted at a later time.
Osiris is the Greek form of his name. He was known to the Egyptians as Asir (sometimes transliterated as Wsir or Asar). The earliest form of his name used hieroglyphs for "throne" and "eye" leading some to infer that his name means "he sees the throne". It is also possible that the second hieroglyph refers to the great "eye of heaven", Ra. The throne or seat, is the first sign in the name of Aset (Isis), who is the female counterpart (wife and sister) of Osiris. In the late period Osiris was known as Un-nefer, from "un" (to open, to appear, to make manifest) and "neferu" (good things or beauty). He had too many epithets to mention, party because he adopted many of those originally possessed by other local gods whose attributes he assumed over time.
In Memphis, Ptah-Sokar was the result of the combination of Ptah (the creator god of Memphis) and Sokar (or Seker), a local falcon god who protected tombs and was the patron of the workers who built them). As a god of re-incarnation, Ptah-Sokar became identified with Osiris, becoming Ptah-Sokar-Asir. This deity represented the sun during its journey through the underworld before it was reborn at dawn.
Osiris also managed to absorb many other deities, making his worship (in one form or another) a constant feature all over Egypt. He was most closely associated with Andjety, Sahu, Khentiamentiu, Sepa, Banebdjed, Wepwawet, Serapis and Anhur in his form as Ari-hes-nefer (also given as Arensnuphis, Arsnuphis, Harensnuphis) and both the Apis and Buchis bulls.
The oldest religious texts known to us refer to him as the great god of the dead, who once possessed human form and lived upon earth. After his murder by Set he became the king of the underworld and presided over the judgment of dead souls. In order to enter his kingdom, the deceased had to undertake a perilous journey (aided by spells and amulets) to the hall of judgment where their heart was balanced against the feather of Ma'at (justice or balance). It is important to distinguish this from the Christian view of judgment. The ancient Egyptians were a pragmatic people. A person was not expected to be perfect, just balanced. An example of this is the "negative confession" (in which the deceased listed all of the evil things he had not done during his lifetime, i.e. "I never murdered anyone") which indicates that it was more a case of convincing Osiris that you deserved admission rather than passively awaiting judgment.
As Osiris had been a good and beneficent ruler during his lifetime, his presence in the underworld no doubt gave the people great comfort. Furthermore, the only barriers to entrance were those relating to the journey to the hall of judgment and the preservation of the body (in which the Ba resided) and your name. The spells needed to pass through Duat (the underworld) were described in great detail in the pyramid and coffin texts, "the book of coming forth by day" (also known as "the book of the dead") and the "book of gates". A decent burial combined with these spells pretty much guaranteed you would be welcomed into a blissful existence which bore a striking similarity to the ancient Egyptian's everyday life (shorn of any problemsOsiris was also a god of agriculture.
This may seem rather strange as he was dead, and technically infertile. However, it actually makes a lot of sense when you consider the death and rebirth inherent in the agricultural cycle of planting and harvesting grain. Every harvest, the god was symbolically killed and his body broken on the threshing room floor, but after the inundation life would return to the land and the crops would grow again. Legend held that the ancient Egyptians had been cannibals until Osiris developed agriculture and he and Isis persuaded them to cease that unpleasant habit. There is no evidence that the ancient peoples were in fact cannibals, but the myth underlined the notion that Osiris brought order from chaos and established the culture which formed the basis of their successful and durable civilisation.
Osiris was usually depicted as a mummified king, complete with the ceremonial (curved) beard, crown, flail, and crozier. His skin is generally green or black, to represent the fact that he is dead. He usually wears the white crown of Upper Egypt (the south) or the Atef crown (the white crown with a plume of feathers on each side and a disc at the top). The feathers on the Atef crown are thought to represent Djedu (Busiris), the cult center of Osiris.
His kind smile confirms that he is not a deity to be feared. In fact, Osiris represented the Egyptian belief in rebirth and their feeling that order and justice persevered beyond the grave. "Corn mummies" made of seeded dirt were molded to represent Osiris and interred with the deceased. They would germinate in the darkness of the tomb and illustrate the concept of life from death. Some fine examples made of barley and emmer were found in Tutankhamen's tomb.
During the fourth month of the season of Akhet (emergence) a number of festivals were celebrated at all the chief sanctuaries of Osiris in Egypt, to commemorate the events of Osiris' life, death, and rebirth. Spectators took part in the "passion plays" and everyone seems to have had a great time. The many festivals are recorded on a stele established by Ikhernofret (a prince who acted as Senusert III's chief treasurer).
Set had been jealous of his brother Osiris' power and popularity for some time, and he lusted after his brother's wife, Isis (Aset). When Osiris decided to travel the world to bring civilisation to its people, he made Isis Regent of Egypt instead of Set. This was the last straw. Set was strong and brave (he was not two-dimensionally "evil") but he had a terrible temper and he vowed to kill his brother and take the power he considered to be rightfully his. Set invited Osiris to a banquet and had a beautiful cedarwood and ebony chest made just for the occasion. He offered the chest to anyone who could fit into it. Just as Set planned, none of the other guests fitted the chest perfectly, the only person left to try was Osiris. When he lay down in the chest (which had been made to fit him), Set slammed on the lid and nailed it down. He sealed it with molten led and threw it in the Nile.
The chest was swept out to sea and landed on the coast near Byblos. The instant it touched the land, a huge Tamarisk tree sprouted up to protect it. The tree grew so large that the king of Byblos trimmed it and set it up as a pillar in his palace. Isis tracked his body to Byblos and persuaded the king to give it to her (by saving a child from a snake bite - easy for the "queen of heaven"). She took her husband's corpse back to Egypt and used magic to concieve his child, Horus (other accounts suggest she was already pregnant when he died). However, Set found Osiris's body unattended while Isis took the infant Horus to be cared by Wadjet (or Udjat, "she who is green", the cobra goddess of Lower Egypt).
He cut the corpse into fourteen (or sixteen) parts and distributed them around Egypt. Isis was distraught, and enlisted the help of her sister (and Set's wife) Nephthys. They found all but one of the pieces. The missing part was his penis (poor guy) which was apparently swallowed by a fish sacred to Set. Isis and Nephthys mourned over the dead body of their brother and Ra took pity on them. He sent Anubis to prepare Osiris for the first ever mummification, and instructed Thoth, Isis and Nephthys to piece the body back together. Isis transformed into a kite (common small bird) and breathed life into him, but it was not sufficient for him to take his place with the living. Instead he travelled to the underworld, a seemingly dark and desolate place. But Re reassured him that he would find peace and contentment as the king of the dead, and his son Horus would rule over the living until the time that Re chose to unmake his creation and return everything to the nothingness from whence it came.
Later, when the theology of Heliopolis (the Ennead) and Hermopolis (the Ogdoad) were merged, Osiris tookover Anubis's role as the god of the underworld (although he remained central to funerary rights). It was belived that Anubis had given way to Osiris out of respect, and a myth developed that Anubis was in fact the son of Osiris by Nephyths (his sister and wife of his brother Set). Nephthys was not happy with Set (who was described as being ugly) and so she sneakily disguised herself as her sisterIsis and slept with Osiris. Nephythys was considered to be barren, but despite this she concieved Anubis. Surprisingly, Isis does not seem to get annoyed at either party, but unsurprisingly Set was furious. Thus the myth provided a more personal reason for his vendetta against Osiris. The myth is also thought to relate to one of the desert flowers common in ancient Egypt which did not bloom for years on end. However, a large innundation would bring it to life. Thus the barren desert (in this case Nepthys) became fertile, and Osiris' connection with the life-giving Nile is strengthened.
There are many separate hawk deities called Horus who are often confused. In the theology of Heliopolis, Horus the child was the child of Isis and Osiris. However, in Hermopolis Horus the elder was the son or husband of Hathor (her name is Hwt-Hor, or "the house of Horus"). When the two theologies merged, Hathor and Isis became closely associated (both sometimes appear wearing a sun disk and bovine horns) and Horus the elder became the brother of Osiris and Set (making him the uncle ofHorus son of Isis and Osiris). Thus Horus could be a solar deity (Horus the Elder or Haroeris) or an Osirian and hence stellar deity (often called Horus the child, Harpokrates or Harsiesis, horus son of Isis).
This confused the hell out of Plutarch (the Greek writer), who made up the story that Horus the elder was concieved by Isis and Osiris while they were in Nut's womb! The pyramid texts confirm their separate identities as Horus the Elder warns the other gods not to get involved with Horus the younger and his "evil things" (unfotuntely no details of these "things" are given). Set was also the enemy of Horus the Elder, and some Egyptologists suggest that the battle for control of Egypt was actually played out between those two deities, with Osiris being inserted at a later time.
Osiris is the Greek form of his name. He was known to the Egyptians as Asir (sometimes transliterated as Wsir or Asar). The earliest form of his name used hieroglyphs for "throne" and "eye" leading some to infer that his name means "he sees the throne". It is also possible that the second hieroglyph refers to the great "eye of heaven", Ra. The throne or seat, is the first sign in the name of Aset (Isis), who is the female counterpart (wife and sister) of Osiris. In the late period Osiris was known as Un-nefer, from "un" (to open, to appear, to make manifest) and "neferu" (good things or beauty). He had too many epithets to mention, party because he adopted many of those originally possessed by other local gods whose attributes he assumed over time.
In Memphis, Ptah-Sokar was the result of the combination of Ptah (the creator god of Memphis) and Sokar (or Seker), a local falcon god who protected tombs and was the patron of the workers who built them). As a god of re-incarnation, Ptah-Sokar became identified with Osiris, becoming Ptah-Sokar-Asir. This deity represented the sun during its journey through the underworld before it was reborn at dawn.
Osiris also managed to absorb many other deities, making his worship (in one form or another) a constant feature all over Egypt. He was most closely associated with Andjety, Sahu, Khentiamentiu, Sepa, Banebdjed, Wepwawet, Serapis and Anhur in his form as Ari-hes-nefer (also given as Arensnuphis, Arsnuphis, Harensnuphis) and both the Apis and Buchis bulls.
HATHOR
Hathor is one of the most famous goddesses of Ancient Egypt. She was known as "the Great One of Many Names" and her titles and attributes are so numerous that she was important in every area of the life and death of the ancient Egyptians. It is thought that her worship was widespread even in thePredynastic period because she appears on the Narmer palette. However, some scholars suggest that the cow-headed goddess depicted on the palette is in fact Bat (an ancient cow goddess who was largely absorbed by Hathor) or even Narmer himself. However, she was certainly popular by the Old Kingdom as she appears with Bast in the valley temple of Khafre at Giza. Hathor represents Upper Egypt and Bast represents Lower Egypt.
She was originally a personification of the Milky Way, which was considered to be the milk that flowed from the udders of a heavenly cow (linking her with Nut, Bat and Mehet-Weret). As time passed she absorbed the attributes of many other goddesses but also became more closely associated with Isis, who to some degreeusurped her position as the most popular and powerful goddess. Yet she remained popular throughout Egyptian history. More festivals were dedicated to her and more children were named after her than any other god or goddess of Ancient Egypt. Her worship was not confined to Egypt and Nubia. She was worshipped throughout Semitic West Asia, Ethiopian, Somlia and Libya, but was particularly venerated in the city of Byblos.
She was a sky goddess, known as "Lady of Stars" and "Sovereign of Stars" and linked to Sirius (and so the goddesses Sopdetand Isis). Her birthday was celebrated on the day that Sirius first rose in the sky (heralding the coming innundation). By thePtolemaic period, she was known as the goddess of Hethara, the third month of the Egyptian calendar.
As "the Mistress of Heaven" she was associated with Nut, Mut and the Queen. While as "the Celestial Nurse" she nursed the Pharaoh in the guise of a cow or as a sycamore fig (because it exudes a white milky substance). As "the Mother of Mothers" she was the goddess of women, fertility, children and childbirth. She had power over anything having to do with women from problems with conception or childbirth, to health and beauty and matters of the heart. However, she was not exclusively worshipped by women and unlike the other gods and goddesses she had both male and female priests.
Hathor was also the goddess of beauty and patron of the cosmetic arts. Her traditional votive offering was two mirrors and she was often depicted on mirrors and cosmetic palettes. Yet she was not considered to be vain or shallow, rather she was assured of her own beauty and goodness and loved beautiful and good things. She was known as "the mistress of life" and was seen as the embodiment of joy, love, romance, perfume, dance, music and alcohol. Hathor was especially connected with the fragrance of myrrh incense, which was considered to be very precious and to embody all of the finer qualities of the female sex. Hathor was associated with turquoise, malachite, gold and copper. As "the Mistress of Turquoise" and the "lady of Malachite" she was the patron of miners and the goddess of the Sinai Peninsula (the location of the famous mines). The Egyptians used eye makeup made from ground malachite which had a protective function (in fighting eye infections) which was attributed to Hathor.
She was the patron of dancers and was associated with percussive music, particularly the sistrum (which was also a fertility fetish). She was also associated with the Menit necklace (which may also have been a percussion instrument) and was often known as "the Great Menit". Many of her priests were artisans, musicians, and dancers who added to the quality of life of the Egyptians and worshipped her by expressing their artistic natures. Hathor was the incarnation of dance and sexuality and was given the epithet "Hand of God" (refering to the act of masturbation) and "Lady of the Vulva". One myth tells that Ra had become so despondent that he refused to speak to anyone. Hathor (who never suffered depression or doubt) danced before him exposing her private parts, which caused him to laugh out loud and return to good spirits.
As the "lady of the west" and the "lady of the southern sycamore" she protected and assisted the dead on their final journey. Trees were not commonplace in ancient Egypt, and their shade was welcomed by the living and the dead alike. She was sometimes depicted as handing out water to the deceased from a sycamore tree (a role formerly associated with Amentet who was often described as the daughter of Hathor) and according to myth, she (or Isis) used the milk from the Sycamore tree to restore sight to Horus who had been blinded by Set. Because of her role in helping the dead, she often appears on sarcophagi with Nut (the former on top of the lid, the later under the lid).
She occassionally took the form of the "Seven Hathors" who were associated with fate and fortune telling. It was thought that the "Seven Hathors" knew the length of every childs life from the day it was born and questioned the dead souls as they travelled to the land of the dead. Her priests could read the fortune of a newborn child, and act as oracles to explain the dreams of the people. People would travel for miles to beseech the goddess for protection, assistance and inspiration. The "Seven Hathors" were worshiped in seven cities: Waset (Thebes), Iunu (On, Heliopolis), Aphroditopolis, Sinai, Momemphis, Herakleopolis, and Keset. They may have been linked to the constellations Pleiades.
However, she was also a goddess of destruction in her role as the Eye of Ra - defender of the sun god. According to legend, people started to criticise Ra when he ruled as Pharaoh. Ra decided to send his "eye" against them (in the form of Sekhmet). She began to slaughter people by the hundred. When Ra relented and asked her to stop she refused as she was in a blood lust. The only way to stop the slaughter was to colour beer red (to resemble blood) and pour the mixture over the killing fields. When she drank the beer, she became drunk and drowsy, and slept for three days. When she awoke with a hangover she had no taste for human flesh and mankind was saved. Ra renamed her Hathor and she became a goddess of love and happiness. As a result, soldiers also prayed to Hathor/Sekhmet to give them her strength and focus in battle.
Her husband Horus the elder was associated with the pharaoh, so Hathor was associated with the Queen. Her name is translated as "The House of Horus", which refers both to the sky (where Horus lived as a Hawk) and to the royal family. She had a son named Ihy (who was a god of music and dancing) with Horus-Behdety and the three were worshipped at Denderah (Iunet). However, her family relationships became increasingly confusing as time passed. She was probably first considered to be the wife of Horus the elder and the daughter of Ra, but when Ra and Horus were linked as the composite deity Re-Horakty she became both the wife and the daughter of Ra.
This strengthened her association with Isis, who was the mother of Horus the child by Osiris. In Hermopolis (Khmunu) Thoth was the foremost god, and Hathor was considered to be his wife and the mother of Re-Horakhty (a composite deity which merged Ra with Hor-akhty).
Of course, Thoth already had a wife, Seshat (the goddess of reading, writing, architecture and arithmetic), so Hathor absorbed her role including acting as a witness at the judgement of the dead. Her role in welcoming the dead gained her a further husband - Nehebkau (the guardian of the entrance of the underworld). Then when Ra and Amun merged, Hathor became seen as the wife of Sobek who was considered to be an aspect of Amen-Ra. Yet Sobek was also associated with Seth, the enemy of Horus!
She took the form of a woman, goose, cat, lion, malachite, sycamore fig, to name but a few. However, Hathor's most famous manifestation is as a cow and even when she appears as a woman she has either the ears of a cow, or a pair of elegant horns. When she is depicted as entirely a cow, she always has beautifully painted eyes. She was often depicted in red (the color of passion) though her sacred color is turquoise. It is also interesting to note that only she and the dwarf god Bes (who also had a role in childbirth) were ever depicted in portrait (rather than in profile). Isis borrowed many of her functions and adapted her iconography to the extent that it is often difficult to be sure which of the two goddesses is depicted. However, the two deities were not the same. Isis was in many ways a more complex deity who suffered the death of her husband and had to fight to protect her infant son, so she understood the trials and tribulations of the people and could relate to them. Hathor, on the other hand, was the embodiment of power and success and did not experience doubts. While Isis was merciful, Hathor was single minded in pursuit of her goals. When she took the form of Sekhmet, she did not take pity on the people and even refused to stop killing when ordered to do so.
She was originally a personification of the Milky Way, which was considered to be the milk that flowed from the udders of a heavenly cow (linking her with Nut, Bat and Mehet-Weret). As time passed she absorbed the attributes of many other goddesses but also became more closely associated with Isis, who to some degreeusurped her position as the most popular and powerful goddess. Yet she remained popular throughout Egyptian history. More festivals were dedicated to her and more children were named after her than any other god or goddess of Ancient Egypt. Her worship was not confined to Egypt and Nubia. She was worshipped throughout Semitic West Asia, Ethiopian, Somlia and Libya, but was particularly venerated in the city of Byblos.
She was a sky goddess, known as "Lady of Stars" and "Sovereign of Stars" and linked to Sirius (and so the goddesses Sopdetand Isis). Her birthday was celebrated on the day that Sirius first rose in the sky (heralding the coming innundation). By thePtolemaic period, she was known as the goddess of Hethara, the third month of the Egyptian calendar.
As "the Mistress of Heaven" she was associated with Nut, Mut and the Queen. While as "the Celestial Nurse" she nursed the Pharaoh in the guise of a cow or as a sycamore fig (because it exudes a white milky substance). As "the Mother of Mothers" she was the goddess of women, fertility, children and childbirth. She had power over anything having to do with women from problems with conception or childbirth, to health and beauty and matters of the heart. However, she was not exclusively worshipped by women and unlike the other gods and goddesses she had both male and female priests.
Hathor was also the goddess of beauty and patron of the cosmetic arts. Her traditional votive offering was two mirrors and she was often depicted on mirrors and cosmetic palettes. Yet she was not considered to be vain or shallow, rather she was assured of her own beauty and goodness and loved beautiful and good things. She was known as "the mistress of life" and was seen as the embodiment of joy, love, romance, perfume, dance, music and alcohol. Hathor was especially connected with the fragrance of myrrh incense, which was considered to be very precious and to embody all of the finer qualities of the female sex. Hathor was associated with turquoise, malachite, gold and copper. As "the Mistress of Turquoise" and the "lady of Malachite" she was the patron of miners and the goddess of the Sinai Peninsula (the location of the famous mines). The Egyptians used eye makeup made from ground malachite which had a protective function (in fighting eye infections) which was attributed to Hathor.
She was the patron of dancers and was associated with percussive music, particularly the sistrum (which was also a fertility fetish). She was also associated with the Menit necklace (which may also have been a percussion instrument) and was often known as "the Great Menit". Many of her priests were artisans, musicians, and dancers who added to the quality of life of the Egyptians and worshipped her by expressing their artistic natures. Hathor was the incarnation of dance and sexuality and was given the epithet "Hand of God" (refering to the act of masturbation) and "Lady of the Vulva". One myth tells that Ra had become so despondent that he refused to speak to anyone. Hathor (who never suffered depression or doubt) danced before him exposing her private parts, which caused him to laugh out loud and return to good spirits.
As the "lady of the west" and the "lady of the southern sycamore" she protected and assisted the dead on their final journey. Trees were not commonplace in ancient Egypt, and their shade was welcomed by the living and the dead alike. She was sometimes depicted as handing out water to the deceased from a sycamore tree (a role formerly associated with Amentet who was often described as the daughter of Hathor) and according to myth, she (or Isis) used the milk from the Sycamore tree to restore sight to Horus who had been blinded by Set. Because of her role in helping the dead, she often appears on sarcophagi with Nut (the former on top of the lid, the later under the lid).
She occassionally took the form of the "Seven Hathors" who were associated with fate and fortune telling. It was thought that the "Seven Hathors" knew the length of every childs life from the day it was born and questioned the dead souls as they travelled to the land of the dead. Her priests could read the fortune of a newborn child, and act as oracles to explain the dreams of the people. People would travel for miles to beseech the goddess for protection, assistance and inspiration. The "Seven Hathors" were worshiped in seven cities: Waset (Thebes), Iunu (On, Heliopolis), Aphroditopolis, Sinai, Momemphis, Herakleopolis, and Keset. They may have been linked to the constellations Pleiades.
However, she was also a goddess of destruction in her role as the Eye of Ra - defender of the sun god. According to legend, people started to criticise Ra when he ruled as Pharaoh. Ra decided to send his "eye" against them (in the form of Sekhmet). She began to slaughter people by the hundred. When Ra relented and asked her to stop she refused as she was in a blood lust. The only way to stop the slaughter was to colour beer red (to resemble blood) and pour the mixture over the killing fields. When she drank the beer, she became drunk and drowsy, and slept for three days. When she awoke with a hangover she had no taste for human flesh and mankind was saved. Ra renamed her Hathor and she became a goddess of love and happiness. As a result, soldiers also prayed to Hathor/Sekhmet to give them her strength and focus in battle.
Her husband Horus the elder was associated with the pharaoh, so Hathor was associated with the Queen. Her name is translated as "The House of Horus", which refers both to the sky (where Horus lived as a Hawk) and to the royal family. She had a son named Ihy (who was a god of music and dancing) with Horus-Behdety and the three were worshipped at Denderah (Iunet). However, her family relationships became increasingly confusing as time passed. She was probably first considered to be the wife of Horus the elder and the daughter of Ra, but when Ra and Horus were linked as the composite deity Re-Horakty she became both the wife and the daughter of Ra.
This strengthened her association with Isis, who was the mother of Horus the child by Osiris. In Hermopolis (Khmunu) Thoth was the foremost god, and Hathor was considered to be his wife and the mother of Re-Horakhty (a composite deity which merged Ra with Hor-akhty).
Of course, Thoth already had a wife, Seshat (the goddess of reading, writing, architecture and arithmetic), so Hathor absorbed her role including acting as a witness at the judgement of the dead. Her role in welcoming the dead gained her a further husband - Nehebkau (the guardian of the entrance of the underworld). Then when Ra and Amun merged, Hathor became seen as the wife of Sobek who was considered to be an aspect of Amen-Ra. Yet Sobek was also associated with Seth, the enemy of Horus!
She took the form of a woman, goose, cat, lion, malachite, sycamore fig, to name but a few. However, Hathor's most famous manifestation is as a cow and even when she appears as a woman she has either the ears of a cow, or a pair of elegant horns. When she is depicted as entirely a cow, she always has beautifully painted eyes. She was often depicted in red (the color of passion) though her sacred color is turquoise. It is also interesting to note that only she and the dwarf god Bes (who also had a role in childbirth) were ever depicted in portrait (rather than in profile). Isis borrowed many of her functions and adapted her iconography to the extent that it is often difficult to be sure which of the two goddesses is depicted. However, the two deities were not the same. Isis was in many ways a more complex deity who suffered the death of her husband and had to fight to protect her infant son, so she understood the trials and tribulations of the people and could relate to them. Hathor, on the other hand, was the embodiment of power and success and did not experience doubts. While Isis was merciful, Hathor was single minded in pursuit of her goals. When she took the form of Sekhmet, she did not take pity on the people and even refused to stop killing when ordered to do so.
NEITH
Neith (Nit, Net, Neit) was an ancient goddess of war and weaving. She was the patron goddess of the Red Crown of Lower Egypt and the city of Zau (Sais, in the 5th Nome ofLower Egtpt) in the Delta. According to the Iunyt (Esna) cosmology, Neith was the creator of the world and the mother of the sun, Ra. This made her the mother of all of the gods and connected her with Nun (a member of the Ogdoad of Hermopolis who was the personification of the primeaval waters of chaos from which Ra emerged at the beginning of time). However, she was also credited with creating Apep, the great serpent and the sworn enemy of Ra, by spitting into the waters of Nun.
She was associated with two different emblems; a shield crossed with two arrows, or a weaving shuttle. It seems that the crossed arrows was her symbol during the predynastic period when she was considered to be a goddess of hunting and war known by the epithet, "Mistress of the Bow, Ruler of Arrows". The crossed arrows also formed the emblem of the town of Zau (Sais) and the name of the nome of which her city was the capital.
The earliest recorded example of Neith being written using the crossed arrows is in the name of Queen Nihotep (thought to be the wife of Hor Aha, Early Dynastic period). It is not clear when the arrows were replaced by the weaving shuttle, or whether this was the result of confusion or an attempt to re-align Neith as a goddess of weaving. One creation myth suggested that she created the world by weaving, and it was sometimes suggested that she was connected to funerary rites because she was responsible for weaving the mummy wrappings (linking her to Nephthys).
Neith was a powerful and popular deity who the other gods apparently consulted when they could not settle a dispute. For example, according to myth is was Neith who eventually ruled that Horus would be king of Upper and Lower Egypt instead of Set. In compensation she gave Set land and blessed his wedding to two foreign goddeses (Anat and Astarte).
Her family relationships were typically confusing. During the Old Kingdom, she was regarded as the wife of Set (making it unlikely she would be called to rule against him and grant him extra wives!). However, her association with Set was dropped as he was re-interpreted as a force of evil. She was often considered to be the mother ofSobek, the crocodile god. In the Pyramid texts in Unas' tomb she is given the epithet "Nurse of Crocodiles". Yet, in later times she was considered to be the wife ofSobek rather than his mother. In addition, she was sometimes described as the wife of Khnum in Upper Egypt.
In the form of a cow, she was linked to both Nut and Hathor and in late dynastic times she was regarded as a form of Hathor. She was also linked to Tatet (the goddess who dressed the dead). Herodotus described the annual festival in honour of Isis-Neith. Lamps and torches were kept burning until the morning, while everyone enjoyed a feast.
Neith was associated with Anubis and Wepwawet (Upuaut), because of her epithet "Opener of the Ways". She was also one of the four goddesses (along with Isis, Nephthys and Serqet/Selket) who protected the deceased and the canopic jars (which were topped by the four sons of Horus ). Neithguarded the east side of the sarcophagus and protected Duamutef (the the jackal-headed god) as he watched over the stomach.
Neith was usually depicted as a woman wearing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt, but was occasionally depicted as a cow in connection with her role as the mother of Ra (linking her with Hathor, Hesat and Bat). Her name links her with the crown of Lower Egypt which was known as "nt" . However, her name is also linked to the word for weaving ('ntt') and to one of the words used for water ("nt"). When she is refered to as the creator of the world her name is written using the hieroglyph of an ejaculating phallus, indicating that she was considered as an androgynous creator.
She was associated with two different emblems; a shield crossed with two arrows, or a weaving shuttle. It seems that the crossed arrows was her symbol during the predynastic period when she was considered to be a goddess of hunting and war known by the epithet, "Mistress of the Bow, Ruler of Arrows". The crossed arrows also formed the emblem of the town of Zau (Sais) and the name of the nome of which her city was the capital.
The earliest recorded example of Neith being written using the crossed arrows is in the name of Queen Nihotep (thought to be the wife of Hor Aha, Early Dynastic period). It is not clear when the arrows were replaced by the weaving shuttle, or whether this was the result of confusion or an attempt to re-align Neith as a goddess of weaving. One creation myth suggested that she created the world by weaving, and it was sometimes suggested that she was connected to funerary rites because she was responsible for weaving the mummy wrappings (linking her to Nephthys).
Neith was a powerful and popular deity who the other gods apparently consulted when they could not settle a dispute. For example, according to myth is was Neith who eventually ruled that Horus would be king of Upper and Lower Egypt instead of Set. In compensation she gave Set land and blessed his wedding to two foreign goddeses (Anat and Astarte).
Her family relationships were typically confusing. During the Old Kingdom, she was regarded as the wife of Set (making it unlikely she would be called to rule against him and grant him extra wives!). However, her association with Set was dropped as he was re-interpreted as a force of evil. She was often considered to be the mother ofSobek, the crocodile god. In the Pyramid texts in Unas' tomb she is given the epithet "Nurse of Crocodiles". Yet, in later times she was considered to be the wife ofSobek rather than his mother. In addition, she was sometimes described as the wife of Khnum in Upper Egypt.
In the form of a cow, she was linked to both Nut and Hathor and in late dynastic times she was regarded as a form of Hathor. She was also linked to Tatet (the goddess who dressed the dead). Herodotus described the annual festival in honour of Isis-Neith. Lamps and torches were kept burning until the morning, while everyone enjoyed a feast.
Neith was associated with Anubis and Wepwawet (Upuaut), because of her epithet "Opener of the Ways". She was also one of the four goddesses (along with Isis, Nephthys and Serqet/Selket) who protected the deceased and the canopic jars (which were topped by the four sons of Horus ). Neithguarded the east side of the sarcophagus and protected Duamutef (the the jackal-headed god) as he watched over the stomach.
Neith was usually depicted as a woman wearing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt, but was occasionally depicted as a cow in connection with her role as the mother of Ra (linking her with Hathor, Hesat and Bat). Her name links her with the crown of Lower Egypt which was known as "nt" . However, her name is also linked to the word for weaving ('ntt') and to one of the words used for water ("nt"). When she is refered to as the creator of the world her name is written using the hieroglyph of an ejaculating phallus, indicating that she was considered as an androgynous creator.
ANHUR
Anhur (Han-her, Inhert) is often known by his Greek name, Onuris. He was an ancient Egyptian god of war and hunting from This (in the Thinite region near Abydos) who defended his father (the sun god Ra) from his enemies (giving him the epithet "slayer of enemies"). He was one of the gods who stood at the front of the sun god's barque and defended him from Apep.
He was a patron of the ancient Egyptian army, and the personification of royal warriors but also represented the creativity of man and so was not always a violent deity. During his festival the Egyptians held playful mock battles between the priests and the people in which they hit each other with sticks!
His name translates as "he who leads back the distant one" (although another possible translation is "Sky Bearer"). This name seems to refer to the legend that the "Eye of Ra" (his daughter who may be Hathor,Sekhmet, Tefnut, Mut, or Bast) abandoned Egypt and traveled to Nubia in the form of a ferocious lioness. But Ra missed her, and so he sent an envoy to bring her back. This legend is told about the great hunter and the leonine goddess Menhet. When the hunter caught her and persuaded her to return he was given the name Anhur and allowed to marry the Goddess. However, in one version of the story it was Shu who traveled to Nubia with Thoth and persuaded Tefnut to return.
Anhur is generally depicted as a striding king wearing a long kilt decorated with a feather-like pattern, a short wig topped by the uraeus (serpent) and a crown of four tall feathers. In some depcitions he holds his spear or lance (leading to the epithet "the lord of lances") above his head (imitating the determinative for words such as "strike") and in his left hand he holds a length of rope that probably relates to his role in bringing the "Eye of Ra" back to Egypt. Occasionally he is depicted without the spear or rope, but often his hands are in the position they would be in if he were carrying them.
He was a son of Ra, but was also considered to be the son of Hathor. As a war god, he was closely associated with Montu (Montju) (of Thebes) and Sopdu, and was associated with Ares (the Greek god of War) by both the Greeks and the Romans. Emperor Tiberius was depicted wearing the crown of Anhur on the walls of the temple of Kom Ombo (dedicated to Sobek and Horus). Although Anhur originated in This, his main center of worship was in the town of Sebennytos (modern Samannud) in the Delta, where he considered to be an aspect of the air god, Shu. As Anhur was a more popular god, he largely absorbed the attributes of the less favoured wind god.
He grew in popularity during the New Kingdom when he became more closely associated with Horus as the composite deity Horus-Anhur, the model warrior and the "saviour" of those in battle. The Nubians renamed Horus-Anhur as Ary-hes-nefer (also given as Arensnuphis, Arsnuphis, Harensnuphis) possibly meaning "Horus of the beautiful house". This deity was thought to be married to Isis, linking him to Osiris. The Pharaohs Nectanebo I and II (of the Thirtieth Dynasty,Late Period) built a temple to Onuris-Shu named Per-shu, the "house of Shu" (known as Peros), but it is thought that there may have been an earlier shrine in the area. Ptolemy IV Philopator and Ptolemy V Epiphanes built the temple of Ary-hes-nefer on the island of Philae (beside the temple of Isis. Silver and bronze amulets of the god have been discovered throughout Egypt.
He was a patron of the ancient Egyptian army, and the personification of royal warriors but also represented the creativity of man and so was not always a violent deity. During his festival the Egyptians held playful mock battles between the priests and the people in which they hit each other with sticks!
His name translates as "he who leads back the distant one" (although another possible translation is "Sky Bearer"). This name seems to refer to the legend that the "Eye of Ra" (his daughter who may be Hathor,Sekhmet, Tefnut, Mut, or Bast) abandoned Egypt and traveled to Nubia in the form of a ferocious lioness. But Ra missed her, and so he sent an envoy to bring her back. This legend is told about the great hunter and the leonine goddess Menhet. When the hunter caught her and persuaded her to return he was given the name Anhur and allowed to marry the Goddess. However, in one version of the story it was Shu who traveled to Nubia with Thoth and persuaded Tefnut to return.
Anhur is generally depicted as a striding king wearing a long kilt decorated with a feather-like pattern, a short wig topped by the uraeus (serpent) and a crown of four tall feathers. In some depcitions he holds his spear or lance (leading to the epithet "the lord of lances") above his head (imitating the determinative for words such as "strike") and in his left hand he holds a length of rope that probably relates to his role in bringing the "Eye of Ra" back to Egypt. Occasionally he is depicted without the spear or rope, but often his hands are in the position they would be in if he were carrying them.
He was a son of Ra, but was also considered to be the son of Hathor. As a war god, he was closely associated with Montu (Montju) (of Thebes) and Sopdu, and was associated with Ares (the Greek god of War) by both the Greeks and the Romans. Emperor Tiberius was depicted wearing the crown of Anhur on the walls of the temple of Kom Ombo (dedicated to Sobek and Horus). Although Anhur originated in This, his main center of worship was in the town of Sebennytos (modern Samannud) in the Delta, where he considered to be an aspect of the air god, Shu. As Anhur was a more popular god, he largely absorbed the attributes of the less favoured wind god.
He grew in popularity during the New Kingdom when he became more closely associated with Horus as the composite deity Horus-Anhur, the model warrior and the "saviour" of those in battle. The Nubians renamed Horus-Anhur as Ary-hes-nefer (also given as Arensnuphis, Arsnuphis, Harensnuphis) possibly meaning "Horus of the beautiful house". This deity was thought to be married to Isis, linking him to Osiris. The Pharaohs Nectanebo I and II (of the Thirtieth Dynasty,Late Period) built a temple to Onuris-Shu named Per-shu, the "house of Shu" (known as Peros), but it is thought that there may have been an earlier shrine in the area. Ptolemy IV Philopator and Ptolemy V Epiphanes built the temple of Ary-hes-nefer on the island of Philae (beside the temple of Isis. Silver and bronze amulets of the god have been discovered throughout Egypt.
SERQET
Serqet (Selket, Serket, Selqet, Selkit, Selkis) was a benevolent scorpion goddess. She was generally viewed as a protective goddess, but also had her darker side. Serqet was thought to have power over venomous snakes and scorpions, likeMeretseger and Isis. It was thought that she could protect a person from venomous bites, and also that she could send snakes and scorpions to meet out punishment to those of whom she disapproved. She was originally worshiped in the Delta, but her popularity spread throughout the land and cult centres were established at Djeba (Edfu) and Per-Serqet (Pselkis, el Dakka). However, no temples specifically dedicated to her has been recovered.
According to some versions of the story, it is she who helps protect Isis and her infant son Horus when they are hiding fromSet in the marshes of the delta. She is associated with the seven scorpions who act as a body guard for the mother and child and is sometimes named as the goddess who convinces Ra to stop the sun barque and help when Horus is poisoned by a magical snake sent by Set. Because of this story, she was thought to offer special protection to children and pregnant womenfrom venomous animals.
She also protected Ra as he travelled though the underworld each night. She was said to watch over any dangerous twist in the path and was responsible for restraining the serpent Apep when he was imprisoned in the netherworld and protecting the sun god's barqe from his attack. This protection was extended to everyone who made the difficult journey through the netherworld.
In the tomb of Nefertari (wife of Ramsess II) the goddess welcomes the queen into the afterlife saying "(I am) Serqet, mistress of heaven and lady of all the gods. I have come before you, the King´s Great Wife, Mistress of the Two Lands, Lady of Upper andLower Egypt, Nefertari, Beloved of Mut, Justified Before Osiris Who Resides in Abydos, and I have accorded you a place in the sacred land, so that you may appear gloriously in heaven like Ra."
However, like the other goddesses known as the "Eye of Ra", she was She was thought to be either the mother or daughter of Ra. who was embodied in the scorching heat of the sun.
She was given the epithet, "Lady of the Beautiful Tent" and "Mistress of the Beautiful House", (referring to the embalmer's tent). She also protected Qebehsenuef (one of the four sons of Horus) who guarded the intestines of the deceased.
She was associated with the western cardinal point (the west was associated with death and rebirth). Yet, she was closely associated with the breath of life. Her enemies would have their breath literally taken away by the effect of a poisonous bite, but she also gave the justified dead the breath of life in the afterworld. In the Book of the Dead, she is associated with the teeth of the deceased. A longer version of her name (srq.t-Ht.w) is often translated as "She Who Lets Throats Breathe", or conversely "she who stiffens (paralyses) the throat".
According to the Pyramid Texts she was the mother of Nehebkau, the snake god who protected the pharaoh from snakebites. She was closely associated with Isis and her sister Nephthys because of her connection with magic and the underworld. In Edfu she was said to be the wife of Horus and the mother of Horakhty (Horus of the Horizon).
She often appeared with the ancient warrior goddess Neith. In the mortuary temple of Hatshepsut Neith and Serqet are present when Amunimpregnates Hatshepsut's mother, Mutemwia. In another tale the two goddesses ensure that Amun and his wife get to enjoy some quality time in peace, and so she was also considered to be a goddess of marriage.
Serqet was often shown as a woman with a scorpion on her head, and occasionally as a scorpion with the head of a woman, though this was rare. She was sometimes shown wearing the headdress of Hathor ( a solar disk and cow horns) but it is thought that this was more to do with her association with Isis. From the Twenty First Dynasty, she was occasionally depicted with the head of a lioness and a protective crocodile at the back of her neck. However, the most famous image of Serqet is the golden figure that forms one of the four goddesses protecting Tutankhamun which was found in his tomb.
KHNUM
Khnum (Khnemu, Khenmu, Khenmew, Chnum) was one of the most ancient gods of Egypt, whose worship is thought to have been popular as early as the Predynastic Period. References from the Pyramid Texts of Unas confirm that his worship was long established even at that early stage and the Old Kingdom pharaoh Khufu (the builder of the Great Pyramid) was actually called "Khnum-Khufu" ("Khnum is his Protector"). However, it seems that the cult of Ra (or Re) rose to dominance at that time and Khnum was pushed to the sidelines as Khufu's son and grandson (Khaf-Re and Menkau-Re) both took names honouring Ra.
Khnum was originally a water god who was thought to rule over all water, including the rivers and lakes of the underworld. He was associated with the source of the Nile, and ensured that the inundation deposited enough precious black silt onto the river banks to make them fertile. The silt also formed the clay, the raw material required to make pottery. As a result he was closely associated with the art of pottery. According to one creation myth, Khnum moulded everything on his potters wheel, including both the people and the other gods. In Iunyt (Esna, in the 3rd Nome of Upper Egypt) it was proposed that he also created the "First Egg" from which the sun was born (as Nefertum, Atum or Ra).
As well as creating the body and the "ka" (spirit) of each newborn child, he could bless the child. The Westcar Papyrus from theSecond Intermediate Period includes the story of Khufu and the Magician in which the birth of three pharaohs is attended by Isis, Nephthys, Meskhenet, Heqet and Khnum. After each child was born Khnum gave them the gift of "health". The pharaoh Hatshepsut also claimed that Khnum had formed her "ka" and given her the blessing of health at the request of her "father" Amun-Ra.
Khnum was also a protective deity of the dead. Spells invoking the assistance of Khnum can be found in the Book of the Dead and on many of the heart-scarabs interred with the dead because it was thought that he would help the deceased obtain a favourable judgement in the Halls of Ma´at.
The ram was considered to be a very potent animal, and so Khnum was assocaited with fertility. He makes an appearance on the "Famine Stele" found on Sehel island. The stele (which was allegedly inscribed during the reign of Djoser) tells that the pharaoh dreamed that the god would deliver the country from a terrible famine if a temple was built in his honour. The pharaoh immediately consecrated a temple to Khnum, and as promised the famine came to an end.
Khnum was one of the gods who was thought to have helped Ra on his perilous nocturnal journey through the underworld. It is also thought that he created the boat which carried Ra and helped defend the sun god against the serpent Apep (Apothis). Yet, he was sometimes considered to be the "ba" of Ra, because the word for "ram" in egyptian was also "ba". When Khnum was merged with Rato form the composite deity Khnum-Ra this deity was associated with Nun (who represented the primeaval waters), and given the epithet Hap-ur ("great Nile" or " Nile of heaven").
His cult was centered on the island of Abu (Elephantine 1st nome of Upper Egypt) where he had been worshiped since the Early Dynastic period . During the New Kingdom he was worshiped there as head of a triad with his wife Satet and his daughter Anuket. He was also worshipped at Esna (Iunyt) where he was thought to be married to both Menhet and Nebtu (a local goddess) and to be the father of Heka (god of magic known as "He Who Activates the Ka"). He was also though to be the husband of Neith at Esna. In Antinoe (Her-wer) he was married to Heqet, the frog goddess associated with childbirth and conception. He was associated with Her-shef at Herakleopolis Magna, and was often linked to Osiris. He was sometimes associated with Isis to represent the Upper Egypt, just as Ptah-Tanen was associated with Nepthys in representing Lower Egypt.
His name derives from the root khnem, "to join, to unite," and with khnem, "to build"; astronomically the name refers to the "conjuction" of the sun and moon at stared seasons of the year, Khnum was the 'Father of Fathers and the Mother of Mothers' of the pharaoh. As a water god he was sometimes named "KebH", meaning "purify". He was depicted as either a ram, a man with the head of a ram or a man with the horns of a ram. He was (very rarely) depicted with the head of a hawk, indicating hissolar connections. He often wears the plumed white crown of Upper Egypt and was sometimes shown as holding a jar with water flowing out of it indicating his link with the source of the Nile. During the early period he was depicted as the early type of domesticated ram (with long corkscrew horns growing horizontally outwards from his head), but in later times was represented by the same type of ram as Amun (with horns curving inward towards him). Occasionally he was depicted with four ram heads (representing sun god Ra, the air god Shu, the earth god Geb and Osiris the god of the underworld ). In this form he was known as Sheft-hat.
Khnum was originally a water god who was thought to rule over all water, including the rivers and lakes of the underworld. He was associated with the source of the Nile, and ensured that the inundation deposited enough precious black silt onto the river banks to make them fertile. The silt also formed the clay, the raw material required to make pottery. As a result he was closely associated with the art of pottery. According to one creation myth, Khnum moulded everything on his potters wheel, including both the people and the other gods. In Iunyt (Esna, in the 3rd Nome of Upper Egypt) it was proposed that he also created the "First Egg" from which the sun was born (as Nefertum, Atum or Ra).
As well as creating the body and the "ka" (spirit) of each newborn child, he could bless the child. The Westcar Papyrus from theSecond Intermediate Period includes the story of Khufu and the Magician in which the birth of three pharaohs is attended by Isis, Nephthys, Meskhenet, Heqet and Khnum. After each child was born Khnum gave them the gift of "health". The pharaoh Hatshepsut also claimed that Khnum had formed her "ka" and given her the blessing of health at the request of her "father" Amun-Ra.
Khnum was also a protective deity of the dead. Spells invoking the assistance of Khnum can be found in the Book of the Dead and on many of the heart-scarabs interred with the dead because it was thought that he would help the deceased obtain a favourable judgement in the Halls of Ma´at.
The ram was considered to be a very potent animal, and so Khnum was assocaited with fertility. He makes an appearance on the "Famine Stele" found on Sehel island. The stele (which was allegedly inscribed during the reign of Djoser) tells that the pharaoh dreamed that the god would deliver the country from a terrible famine if a temple was built in his honour. The pharaoh immediately consecrated a temple to Khnum, and as promised the famine came to an end.
Khnum was one of the gods who was thought to have helped Ra on his perilous nocturnal journey through the underworld. It is also thought that he created the boat which carried Ra and helped defend the sun god against the serpent Apep (Apothis). Yet, he was sometimes considered to be the "ba" of Ra, because the word for "ram" in egyptian was also "ba". When Khnum was merged with Rato form the composite deity Khnum-Ra this deity was associated with Nun (who represented the primeaval waters), and given the epithet Hap-ur ("great Nile" or " Nile of heaven").
His cult was centered on the island of Abu (Elephantine 1st nome of Upper Egypt) where he had been worshiped since the Early Dynastic period . During the New Kingdom he was worshiped there as head of a triad with his wife Satet and his daughter Anuket. He was also worshipped at Esna (Iunyt) where he was thought to be married to both Menhet and Nebtu (a local goddess) and to be the father of Heka (god of magic known as "He Who Activates the Ka"). He was also though to be the husband of Neith at Esna. In Antinoe (Her-wer) he was married to Heqet, the frog goddess associated with childbirth and conception. He was associated with Her-shef at Herakleopolis Magna, and was often linked to Osiris. He was sometimes associated with Isis to represent the Upper Egypt, just as Ptah-Tanen was associated with Nepthys in representing Lower Egypt.
His name derives from the root khnem, "to join, to unite," and with khnem, "to build"; astronomically the name refers to the "conjuction" of the sun and moon at stared seasons of the year, Khnum was the 'Father of Fathers and the Mother of Mothers' of the pharaoh. As a water god he was sometimes named "KebH", meaning "purify". He was depicted as either a ram, a man with the head of a ram or a man with the horns of a ram. He was (very rarely) depicted with the head of a hawk, indicating hissolar connections. He often wears the plumed white crown of Upper Egypt and was sometimes shown as holding a jar with water flowing out of it indicating his link with the source of the Nile. During the early period he was depicted as the early type of domesticated ram (with long corkscrew horns growing horizontally outwards from his head), but in later times was represented by the same type of ram as Amun (with horns curving inward towards him). Occasionally he was depicted with four ram heads (representing sun god Ra, the air god Shu, the earth god Geb and Osiris the god of the underworld ). In this form he was known as Sheft-hat.
WADJET
Wadjet (Wadjyt, Wadjit, Uto, Uatchet, Edjo, Buto) was one of the oldest Egyptian goddesses. Her worship was already established by the Predynastic Period, but did change somewhat as time progressed. She began as the local goddess of Per-Wadjet (Buto) but soon became a patron goddess of Lower Egypt. By the end of the Predynastic Period she was considered to be the personificationof Lower Egypt rather than a distinct goddess and almost always appeared with her sister Nekhbet(who represented Upper Egypt). The two combined represented the country as a whole and were represented in the pharaoh´s "nebty" name (also known as "the two ladies") which indicated that the king ruled over both parts of Egypt. The earliest recovered example of the nebty name is from the reign of Anedjib of the First Dynasty.
In the Pyramid Texts it is suggested that she created the first papyrus plant and papyrus swamp. Her link to the papyrus is strengthened by the fact that her name was written using the glyph of a papyrus plant and the same plant was the heraldic plant of Lower Egypt.
According to another myth Wadjet was the daughter of Atum (or later Ra) who was sent her as his"eye" to find Tefnut and Shu when they were lost in the waters of Nun. He was so happy when they returned that he cried and created the first human beings from his tears. To reward his daughter, he placed her upon his head in the form of a cobra so that she would always be close to him and could act as his protector.
She was one of the goddesses given the title "Eye of Ra" (connecting her to Bast, Hathor, Sekhmentand Tefnut amongst others). In fact the symbol of the "Eye of Ra" was often called "the Wedjat". In this form she was sent out to avenge her father and almost caused the destruction of mankind. Humanity was saved when she was tricked with some beer which had been dyed red withpomegranate juice to resemble blood.
There is also a suggestion that she was very closely linked to the principle of Ma´at (justice or balance). Before being crowned as king, Geb attacked and raped his mother Tefnut. When he went to take his place as pharaoh and put the Royal Ureas on his own forehead, the snake reared up and attacked the god and his followers. All of Geb´s retinue died and the god himself was badly injured. Clearly, his actions were against Ma´at and Wadjet was not prepared to allow him to go unpunished.
Wadjet is often described as an agressive deity while while her sister Nekhbet was thought of as a more matronly protector. However, she also had her gentler side. Wadjet was believed to have helped Isis nurse the young Horus and to help mother and baby hide from Set in the marshes of the delta. She was also considered to offer protection to all women during childbirth.
She (and her sister) also protected the adult Horus from the followers of Set. Horus pursued them in the form of a winged sun disc and Nekhbet and Wadjet flanked him in the form of crowned snakes. This protection was also extended towards the pharaoh who wore the "Royal Ureas" (serpent) on his (or her) forehead. From the Eighteenth Dynasty the queens also added one or two snakes to their headdresses representing Wadjet and her sister.
Wadjet was associated with the fifth hour of the fifth day of the month and with "iput-hmt" (Epipi), the harvest month of the Egyptian calendar. Festivals were held in her honour on the 10th day of "rh-wr" (Mekhir) which was also called "the day of going forth of the Goddess", the 7th day of "khnty-khty" (Payni) and the 8th day of "Wpt-rnpt" (Mesori). These latter two dates coincide roughly with the winter and spring solstices.
She was worshiped at the Temple of Wadjet, known as "Pe-Dep". This temple was already long established by the Old Kingdom and is referred to in the Pyramid Texts. In this temple, Wadjet was linked with Horus. Wadjet was thought to be the wife of Hapi in Lower Egypt and was linked to Setin his role as a representative of Lower Egypt. She was sometimes described as the wife of Ptahand the mother of Nefertem, probably because she occasionally took the form of a lion likeSekhmet.
Her sacred animal was the cobra, and she was often depicted as either a rearing cobra, a winged cobra, or a woman with the head of a cobra.She was also depicted as a woman wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt. She often appears with her sister Nekhbet who was in as a snake or woman. By the Late Period she was also associated with the ichneumon (a mongoose-like creature). This animal was known for its skill in killing snakes and was also sacred to Horus.The Egyptians placed mummified ichneumon and shrew (small mice) inside statuettes of Wadjet which were interred with the dead. The two animals represented day (ichneumon) and night (shrew). She was alsoworshipped as a vulture Goddess. In her form of the "eye of Ra" she was depicted as a lion-headed woman wearing a solar disc and the Uraeus (cobra).
In the Pyramid Texts it is suggested that she created the first papyrus plant and papyrus swamp. Her link to the papyrus is strengthened by the fact that her name was written using the glyph of a papyrus plant and the same plant was the heraldic plant of Lower Egypt.
According to another myth Wadjet was the daughter of Atum (or later Ra) who was sent her as his"eye" to find Tefnut and Shu when they were lost in the waters of Nun. He was so happy when they returned that he cried and created the first human beings from his tears. To reward his daughter, he placed her upon his head in the form of a cobra so that she would always be close to him and could act as his protector.
She was one of the goddesses given the title "Eye of Ra" (connecting her to Bast, Hathor, Sekhmentand Tefnut amongst others). In fact the symbol of the "Eye of Ra" was often called "the Wedjat". In this form she was sent out to avenge her father and almost caused the destruction of mankind. Humanity was saved when she was tricked with some beer which had been dyed red withpomegranate juice to resemble blood.
There is also a suggestion that she was very closely linked to the principle of Ma´at (justice or balance). Before being crowned as king, Geb attacked and raped his mother Tefnut. When he went to take his place as pharaoh and put the Royal Ureas on his own forehead, the snake reared up and attacked the god and his followers. All of Geb´s retinue died and the god himself was badly injured. Clearly, his actions were against Ma´at and Wadjet was not prepared to allow him to go unpunished.
Wadjet is often described as an agressive deity while while her sister Nekhbet was thought of as a more matronly protector. However, she also had her gentler side. Wadjet was believed to have helped Isis nurse the young Horus and to help mother and baby hide from Set in the marshes of the delta. She was also considered to offer protection to all women during childbirth.
She (and her sister) also protected the adult Horus from the followers of Set. Horus pursued them in the form of a winged sun disc and Nekhbet and Wadjet flanked him in the form of crowned snakes. This protection was also extended towards the pharaoh who wore the "Royal Ureas" (serpent) on his (or her) forehead. From the Eighteenth Dynasty the queens also added one or two snakes to their headdresses representing Wadjet and her sister.
Wadjet was associated with the fifth hour of the fifth day of the month and with "iput-hmt" (Epipi), the harvest month of the Egyptian calendar. Festivals were held in her honour on the 10th day of "rh-wr" (Mekhir) which was also called "the day of going forth of the Goddess", the 7th day of "khnty-khty" (Payni) and the 8th day of "Wpt-rnpt" (Mesori). These latter two dates coincide roughly with the winter and spring solstices.
She was worshiped at the Temple of Wadjet, known as "Pe-Dep". This temple was already long established by the Old Kingdom and is referred to in the Pyramid Texts. In this temple, Wadjet was linked with Horus. Wadjet was thought to be the wife of Hapi in Lower Egypt and was linked to Setin his role as a representative of Lower Egypt. She was sometimes described as the wife of Ptahand the mother of Nefertem, probably because she occasionally took the form of a lion likeSekhmet.
Her sacred animal was the cobra, and she was often depicted as either a rearing cobra, a winged cobra, or a woman with the head of a cobra.She was also depicted as a woman wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt. She often appears with her sister Nekhbet who was in as a snake or woman. By the Late Period she was also associated with the ichneumon (a mongoose-like creature). This animal was known for its skill in killing snakes and was also sacred to Horus.The Egyptians placed mummified ichneumon and shrew (small mice) inside statuettes of Wadjet which were interred with the dead. The two animals represented day (ichneumon) and night (shrew). She was alsoworshipped as a vulture Goddess. In her form of the "eye of Ra" she was depicted as a lion-headed woman wearing a solar disc and the Uraeus (cobra).
SOBEK
Sobek (also known as Sebek, Sebek-Ra, Sobeq, Suchos, Sobki, and Soknopais) was the ancient god of crocodiles. He is first mentioned in the Pyramid Texts and his worship continued until theRoman period. Some sects believed that Sobek was the creator of the world who arose from the "Dark Water" and created the order in the universe. Sobek was a god of the Nile who brought fertility to the land. As the "Lord of the Waters" he was thought to have risen from the primeval waters of Nun to create the world and made the Nile from his sweat. One creation myth stated that Sobek laid eggs on the bank of the waters of Nun thus creating the world. However, as well as being a force for creation, he was seen as an unpredictable deity who sometimes allied himself with the forces of Chaos.
Sobek first appeared in the Old Kingdom as the son of Neith with the epithet "The Rager". According to some myths his father was Set, the god of thunder and chaos, but he also had a close association with Horus. He was paired with a number of goddesses in different locations, most notably Hathor, Renenutet, Heqet and Taweret, and was sometimes referred to as the father ofKhonsu, Horus or Khnum.
In some areas, a tame crocodile was worshiped as the earthly embodiment of Sobek himself, while in other places crocodiles were reviled, hunted and killed. It seems likely that Sobek began as a dark god who had to be appeased, but that his protective qualities and his strength were valued when they were used in defence of the Pharaoh and the people. He could protect the justified dead in the netherworld, restoring their sight and reviving their senses. Because of his ferocity, he was considered to be the patron of the army.
Sobek was sometimes considered to be an aspect of Horus because Horus took the form of a crocodile to retrieve the parts of Osiris' body which were lost in the Nile. Yet Sobek was also thought to have assisted Isiswhen she gave birth to Horus. He also rescued the four mummiform sons of Horus (Imsety the human headed protector of the liver, Hapy the baboon headed protector of the lungs, Duamutef the jackal headed protector of the stomach and Qebehsenuef the falcon headed protector of the intestines) by gathering them in a net when they rose from the waters in a lotus bloom. However, he was also associated with Set, the enemy of Osiris. He was also worshiped as the manifestation of Amun-Re and was often depicted wearing either the headdress of Amun or the sun disk ofRa.
The strength and speed of the crocodile was thought to be symbolic of the power of the Pharaoh, and the word "sovereign" was written with the hieroglyph of a crocodile. It was thought that Sobek could protect the Pharaoh from dark magic. During the Twelfth and Thirteenth Dynasties, the cult of Sobek was given particular prominence and a number of rulers incorporated him in their coronation names.
He was depicted as a crocodile, a mummified crocodile or a man with the head of a crocodile. He often wore a plumed headdress with a horned sun disk or the atef crown (associating him with Amon-Ra) and carried the Was sceptre (representing power) and the Ankh (representing the breath of life). Mummified crocodiles representing the god have been found in many ancient tombs. The Egyptians mummified both infant and mature crocodiles and even interred crocodile eggs and foetuses with the deceased in order to enlist the protection of Sobek in the afterlife.
Sobek was known as the Lord of Faiyum, and it is thought that his worship originated in that area. In particular, he was very popular in the city of Arsinoe (known as Shedyet by the Egyptians) near the Faiyum, causing the Greeks to rename the city Crocodilopolis. There is a twelfth dynasty temple at Medinet Madi dedicated to Sobek, his wife Renenutet (the snake goddess who was the protector of the harvest and granaries), and Horus. The temple was originally built by Amenemhet III and Amenemhet IV, but restored during the New Kingdom and expanded during the Ptolemaic period. Tame crocodiles were kept in a sacred pool and hand fed choice cuts of meat and honey cakes and adorned with precious jewels.
However, worship of the god extended to Thebes and Kom Ombo where there was a dual temple dedicated to Sobek and Horus. The left (northern) side was dedicated to Horus the elder (as opposed to Horus son of Isis) while the right side (southern) was dedicated to Sobek. Each temple has its own entrance, chapels and its own dedicated priests. The temple was constructed during thePtolemaic period, but there is evidence of an older structure at that location which may date from the New Kingdom. In the temple of Kom Ombo, Horus appears with his wife Tesentefert (the good sister) and his son Panebtawy (the child god) while Sobek appears with Hathor (who is more often considered to be the wife of Horus the elder) and his son Khonsu (usually considered to be the son of Amun and Mut).
Sobek first appeared in the Old Kingdom as the son of Neith with the epithet "The Rager". According to some myths his father was Set, the god of thunder and chaos, but he also had a close association with Horus. He was paired with a number of goddesses in different locations, most notably Hathor, Renenutet, Heqet and Taweret, and was sometimes referred to as the father ofKhonsu, Horus or Khnum.
In some areas, a tame crocodile was worshiped as the earthly embodiment of Sobek himself, while in other places crocodiles were reviled, hunted and killed. It seems likely that Sobek began as a dark god who had to be appeased, but that his protective qualities and his strength were valued when they were used in defence of the Pharaoh and the people. He could protect the justified dead in the netherworld, restoring their sight and reviving their senses. Because of his ferocity, he was considered to be the patron of the army.
Sobek was sometimes considered to be an aspect of Horus because Horus took the form of a crocodile to retrieve the parts of Osiris' body which were lost in the Nile. Yet Sobek was also thought to have assisted Isiswhen she gave birth to Horus. He also rescued the four mummiform sons of Horus (Imsety the human headed protector of the liver, Hapy the baboon headed protector of the lungs, Duamutef the jackal headed protector of the stomach and Qebehsenuef the falcon headed protector of the intestines) by gathering them in a net when they rose from the waters in a lotus bloom. However, he was also associated with Set, the enemy of Osiris. He was also worshiped as the manifestation of Amun-Re and was often depicted wearing either the headdress of Amun or the sun disk ofRa.
The strength and speed of the crocodile was thought to be symbolic of the power of the Pharaoh, and the word "sovereign" was written with the hieroglyph of a crocodile. It was thought that Sobek could protect the Pharaoh from dark magic. During the Twelfth and Thirteenth Dynasties, the cult of Sobek was given particular prominence and a number of rulers incorporated him in their coronation names.
He was depicted as a crocodile, a mummified crocodile or a man with the head of a crocodile. He often wore a plumed headdress with a horned sun disk or the atef crown (associating him with Amon-Ra) and carried the Was sceptre (representing power) and the Ankh (representing the breath of life). Mummified crocodiles representing the god have been found in many ancient tombs. The Egyptians mummified both infant and mature crocodiles and even interred crocodile eggs and foetuses with the deceased in order to enlist the protection of Sobek in the afterlife.
Sobek was known as the Lord of Faiyum, and it is thought that his worship originated in that area. In particular, he was very popular in the city of Arsinoe (known as Shedyet by the Egyptians) near the Faiyum, causing the Greeks to rename the city Crocodilopolis. There is a twelfth dynasty temple at Medinet Madi dedicated to Sobek, his wife Renenutet (the snake goddess who was the protector of the harvest and granaries), and Horus. The temple was originally built by Amenemhet III and Amenemhet IV, but restored during the New Kingdom and expanded during the Ptolemaic period. Tame crocodiles were kept in a sacred pool and hand fed choice cuts of meat and honey cakes and adorned with precious jewels.
However, worship of the god extended to Thebes and Kom Ombo where there was a dual temple dedicated to Sobek and Horus. The left (northern) side was dedicated to Horus the elder (as opposed to Horus son of Isis) while the right side (southern) was dedicated to Sobek. Each temple has its own entrance, chapels and its own dedicated priests. The temple was constructed during thePtolemaic period, but there is evidence of an older structure at that location which may date from the New Kingdom. In the temple of Kom Ombo, Horus appears with his wife Tesentefert (the good sister) and his son Panebtawy (the child god) while Sobek appears with Hathor (who is more often considered to be the wife of Horus the elder) and his son Khonsu (usually considered to be the son of Amun and Mut).
SET
Set (Seth, Setekh, Sut, Sutekh, Sety) was one of the most ancient of the Egyptian gods and the focus of worship since thePredynastic Period. As part of the Ennead of Heliopolis he was the son of Nut and Geb and the brother of Osiris, Horus the elder, Isis and Nephthys. He was a storm god associated with strange and frightening events such as eclipses, thunderstorms and earthquakes. He also represented the desert and, by extension, the foreign lands beyond the desert. His glyph appears in the Egyptian words for "turmoil", "confusion", "illness", "storm" and "rage". He was considered to be very strong but dangerous, and strange. However, he was not always considered to be an evil being. Set was a friend of the dead, helping them to ascend to heaven on his ladder, and he protected the life giving oases of the desert, and was at times a powerful ally to the pharaoh and even the sun god Ra.
The earliest representation of Set can be found on a carved ivory comb from the Amratian period (Naqada I, 4500BC - 35BC, orthodox dates) and he also appears on the famous Scorpion mace head. His worship seems to have originated in one of the most ancient settlements in the town of Nubt (Kom Ombo), in upper (southern) Egypt. Nubt (near modern Tukh) lies near the entrance to the Wadi Hammammat, the doorway to the eastern desert and its gold deposits, and the city took its name from the word for gold, Nbt (which also means ruler or lord). As a result Set was sometimes called "He of gold town". Nubt was the most important of the ancient settlements, and was located close to the site of the Naqqada settlement from which this early culture takes it name. Pre-dynastic worship of Set was also evident in the 19th and 19th Nomes of Upper Egypt.
The standard for the 11th Nome is topped by a Set animal, and the name of the main town, Sha-shtp, means "The pig (Set) is pacified", and Set was worshipped in his form as a fish in the capital of the 19th Nome.
At this point in history, Set was clearly associated with Upper Egypt and was a popular and esteemed god. However, by the Second Intermediate Period he was associated with the Hyksos (who probably saw a similarity between Set and Baal) and so he became seen as a force for evil. He was then "rehabilitated" during the Nineteenth Dynasty pharaohs (notably Seti I whose name means "man of Set") only to be recast as an evil deity by Greek, Roman and Christian theologists.
Set was the black boar who swallowed the moon each month, obscuring its light. He was also identified with the hippopotamus, crocodiles, scorpions, turtles, pigs and donkeys - all animals which were considered to be unclean or dangerous. Some fish were considered to be sacred to Set (most notably the Nile carp and the Oxyrynchus) as they had apparently eaten the penis of Osiris after Set had dismembered the dead king. However, he was most often depicted as a "Set animal" or a man with the head of a "Set animal". The Set animal (sometimes known as a"Typhonian animal" because of the Greek identification with Typhon) is a dog or jackal like creature, but it is not clear whether it exactly represented an extinct species, or was a mythological beast uniquely associated with Set himself.
In the Osirian mythology he was married to Nephthys, but their marriage was not a happy one. However, Set had many other wives/concubines. According to one myth he lived in the Great Bear, a constellation in the northern sky - an area which symbolized darkness, and death. He was restrained with chains and guarded by his wifeTaweret, the hippo goddess of childbirth. He was given the two foreign goddesses Anat and Astarte (war goddesses from the Syria-Palestine area and daughters of Ra) as wives in compensation for Ma´at's (or Neith's) ruling that Horus should rule Egypt.
However, he had no children, despite being married to the goddess of childbirth and a Cannanite fertility goddess as well as Nephthys and Neith. This was considered to be very unconventional by the Egyptians. Not only was he infertile, but one of his testicles had been torn off by Horus when Set tore out Horus' eye. He only ate lettuce, which was sacred to the fertility god Min because it secreted a white, milky substance that the Egyptians linked to semen and he was considered to have odd sexual habits. He was bisexual, and tried (and failed) to rape both Horus and Isis.
During the Old Kingdom and the Middle Kingdom Horus the elder and Set represented Upper and Lower Egypt. They were often depicted together symbolising the union of Upper and Lower Egypt. He was equal to the hawk god (Horus the Elder, not Horus son of Isis), if not always his ally. Horus represented the sky during the daytime, while Set represented the night time sky. When these two gods were linked, the two were said to be Horus-Set, a man with two heads - one of the hawk of Horus, the other of the Set animal.
Although they fought, neither party could win and it was believed that they would continue to fight until the end of time when Ma'at was destroyed and the waters of Nun (chaos) engulfed the world. However, once Set had been recast as an evil entity, the story changed to record that Horus had won their battle, and thus good had triumphed over evil. Some historians have argued that the battle between Set and Horus was a mythological representation of the struggle to unite Egypt under one ruler. According to this theory, the followers of Horus were successful and so Set was pushed into the background.
It is interesting to note that the pharaoh Sekhemhib displayed his name in a serekh topped by a Set animal, not a falcon (representing Horus), while Khasekhemwy'sserekh included both a Set animal and a falcon. This has been taken as evidence that the battle between Upper and Lower Egypt had been won and the ruler wished to appease both factions.
Even as an infant he was dangerous and unpredictable. According to the pyramid texts he ripped himself violently from his mother's womb instead of being born normally like his siblings. Set was jealous of his brother Osiris. Two reasons are given for this jealousy. The first is that Osiris was made Pharaoh of Egypt after Gebresigned the throne. Set felt that he should have been given this accolade, and wished to usurp the throne. The second reason is that, according to one myth, his wifeNephthys tricked Osiris into having sex with her (by disguising herself as her sister Isis, the wife of Osiris), and bore him a son - Anubis. Set was understandably unhappy about the situation but seems to have held his grudge against his (more handsome) brother Osiris rather than his unfaithful wife. Whatever the reason, Set decided that his brother had to die.
He made a great feast, supposedly in honour of Osiris, and offered a beautifully carved chest to whichever guest would fit into it. Of course, the chest was built to fit Osisris, and when he lay down inside it, Set's followers nailed the lid shut and threw the chest into the Nile. Isis managed to find the chest and bring it back to Egypt. However, Set discovered the chest and dismembered the corpse of his brother, spreading the parts all over the country. Isis and Nepthys began their search for the pieces of Osiris, but his penis could not be found (because it was swallowed by a fish in the Nile). Undaunted, Isis reassembled the pieces and magically conceived her child, Horus. When he grew up he fought with Set, essentially adopting the position of Horus the Elder as the enemy of Set. This of course, added to the confusion betweenHorus the Elder and Horus the son of Isis and Set's role changed from being an equal to his brother Horus the Elder, to the evil uncle of his nephew Horus the child.
Despite the role he was given in the death of Osiris, Set was considered to be the defender of the sun god Ra. he protected the solar barque on its journey through the underworld (or the night sky) and fought the serpent Apep. Yet even when he was acting to protect Ra, the negative side of his personality was apparent. He often boasted that he was the only one of the gods brave enough to stand against Apep and demanded that he be treated with great respect. He even threatened Ra that if he was not treated well enough he would bring storms against him. Ra eventually tired of his taunting and expelled Set from his barque, relying on the help of the other gods to complete his nightly journey.
He was thought to have white skin and red hair, and people with red hair were thought to be his followers. He was associated with the desert (which takes its name from the Egyptian word "dshrt" - the red place). He represented the fierce dry heat of the sun as it parched the land, and was infertile like the desert. Initially he probably represented the desert near Nubt, but soon he represented all deserts and foreign lands, becoming a god of overseas trade. Set had been associated with the desert and foreigners for some time before the Hyksos took over parts of lower Egypt. However, when they took him as their main god, this broke Set's association withLower Egypt. His name was erased from monuments and his statues destroyed. All of his negative attributes were emphasised and his positive side was ignored.
But Set's fortunes soon changed. The Pharaohs of the Nineteenth Dynasty were from the Delta area where worship of Set was still popular. It is also interesting that both Seti I (who even named himself after Set) and Ramesses II seem to have had red hair. Although Amun was the state god, Set was more highly venerated in the Delta. Ramesses II's divided his army into four divisions, and named one after Set. When he fought the Hittities he was described as being "like Set in the moment of his power" and "like Set, great-of-strength". He even named his daughter Bint-Anat (Daughter of Anath, Set's wife).
The Greeks associated Set with Typhon, the largest monster ever born. Typhon was the son of the Earth and Tartarus (the place of torture in Hades), and thoroughly evil. Both were storm gods associated with the colour red and with pigs (whose meat was considered to be unclean by many cultures including the Egyptians). However, unlike Typhon Set had a protective role and even in his negative aspects the Egyptians understood his place in the world. He was dangerous and unpredictable, but could be a powerful friend. During the Ptolemaic period a temple to both Horus and Sobek (who was often associated with Set as both took the form of a crocodile) was built south of Nubt and named Ombos (now known as Kom Ombos) after the god of the ancient city - Set.
The earliest representation of Set can be found on a carved ivory comb from the Amratian period (Naqada I, 4500BC - 35BC, orthodox dates) and he also appears on the famous Scorpion mace head. His worship seems to have originated in one of the most ancient settlements in the town of Nubt (Kom Ombo), in upper (southern) Egypt. Nubt (near modern Tukh) lies near the entrance to the Wadi Hammammat, the doorway to the eastern desert and its gold deposits, and the city took its name from the word for gold, Nbt (which also means ruler or lord). As a result Set was sometimes called "He of gold town". Nubt was the most important of the ancient settlements, and was located close to the site of the Naqqada settlement from which this early culture takes it name. Pre-dynastic worship of Set was also evident in the 19th and 19th Nomes of Upper Egypt.
The standard for the 11th Nome is topped by a Set animal, and the name of the main town, Sha-shtp, means "The pig (Set) is pacified", and Set was worshipped in his form as a fish in the capital of the 19th Nome.
At this point in history, Set was clearly associated with Upper Egypt and was a popular and esteemed god. However, by the Second Intermediate Period he was associated with the Hyksos (who probably saw a similarity between Set and Baal) and so he became seen as a force for evil. He was then "rehabilitated" during the Nineteenth Dynasty pharaohs (notably Seti I whose name means "man of Set") only to be recast as an evil deity by Greek, Roman and Christian theologists.
Set was the black boar who swallowed the moon each month, obscuring its light. He was also identified with the hippopotamus, crocodiles, scorpions, turtles, pigs and donkeys - all animals which were considered to be unclean or dangerous. Some fish were considered to be sacred to Set (most notably the Nile carp and the Oxyrynchus) as they had apparently eaten the penis of Osiris after Set had dismembered the dead king. However, he was most often depicted as a "Set animal" or a man with the head of a "Set animal". The Set animal (sometimes known as a"Typhonian animal" because of the Greek identification with Typhon) is a dog or jackal like creature, but it is not clear whether it exactly represented an extinct species, or was a mythological beast uniquely associated with Set himself.
In the Osirian mythology he was married to Nephthys, but their marriage was not a happy one. However, Set had many other wives/concubines. According to one myth he lived in the Great Bear, a constellation in the northern sky - an area which symbolized darkness, and death. He was restrained with chains and guarded by his wifeTaweret, the hippo goddess of childbirth. He was given the two foreign goddesses Anat and Astarte (war goddesses from the Syria-Palestine area and daughters of Ra) as wives in compensation for Ma´at's (or Neith's) ruling that Horus should rule Egypt.
However, he had no children, despite being married to the goddess of childbirth and a Cannanite fertility goddess as well as Nephthys and Neith. This was considered to be very unconventional by the Egyptians. Not only was he infertile, but one of his testicles had been torn off by Horus when Set tore out Horus' eye. He only ate lettuce, which was sacred to the fertility god Min because it secreted a white, milky substance that the Egyptians linked to semen and he was considered to have odd sexual habits. He was bisexual, and tried (and failed) to rape both Horus and Isis.
During the Old Kingdom and the Middle Kingdom Horus the elder and Set represented Upper and Lower Egypt. They were often depicted together symbolising the union of Upper and Lower Egypt. He was equal to the hawk god (Horus the Elder, not Horus son of Isis), if not always his ally. Horus represented the sky during the daytime, while Set represented the night time sky. When these two gods were linked, the two were said to be Horus-Set, a man with two heads - one of the hawk of Horus, the other of the Set animal.
Although they fought, neither party could win and it was believed that they would continue to fight until the end of time when Ma'at was destroyed and the waters of Nun (chaos) engulfed the world. However, once Set had been recast as an evil entity, the story changed to record that Horus had won their battle, and thus good had triumphed over evil. Some historians have argued that the battle between Set and Horus was a mythological representation of the struggle to unite Egypt under one ruler. According to this theory, the followers of Horus were successful and so Set was pushed into the background.
It is interesting to note that the pharaoh Sekhemhib displayed his name in a serekh topped by a Set animal, not a falcon (representing Horus), while Khasekhemwy'sserekh included both a Set animal and a falcon. This has been taken as evidence that the battle between Upper and Lower Egypt had been won and the ruler wished to appease both factions.
Even as an infant he was dangerous and unpredictable. According to the pyramid texts he ripped himself violently from his mother's womb instead of being born normally like his siblings. Set was jealous of his brother Osiris. Two reasons are given for this jealousy. The first is that Osiris was made Pharaoh of Egypt after Gebresigned the throne. Set felt that he should have been given this accolade, and wished to usurp the throne. The second reason is that, according to one myth, his wifeNephthys tricked Osiris into having sex with her (by disguising herself as her sister Isis, the wife of Osiris), and bore him a son - Anubis. Set was understandably unhappy about the situation but seems to have held his grudge against his (more handsome) brother Osiris rather than his unfaithful wife. Whatever the reason, Set decided that his brother had to die.
He made a great feast, supposedly in honour of Osiris, and offered a beautifully carved chest to whichever guest would fit into it. Of course, the chest was built to fit Osisris, and when he lay down inside it, Set's followers nailed the lid shut and threw the chest into the Nile. Isis managed to find the chest and bring it back to Egypt. However, Set discovered the chest and dismembered the corpse of his brother, spreading the parts all over the country. Isis and Nepthys began their search for the pieces of Osiris, but his penis could not be found (because it was swallowed by a fish in the Nile). Undaunted, Isis reassembled the pieces and magically conceived her child, Horus. When he grew up he fought with Set, essentially adopting the position of Horus the Elder as the enemy of Set. This of course, added to the confusion betweenHorus the Elder and Horus the son of Isis and Set's role changed from being an equal to his brother Horus the Elder, to the evil uncle of his nephew Horus the child.
Despite the role he was given in the death of Osiris, Set was considered to be the defender of the sun god Ra. he protected the solar barque on its journey through the underworld (or the night sky) and fought the serpent Apep. Yet even when he was acting to protect Ra, the negative side of his personality was apparent. He often boasted that he was the only one of the gods brave enough to stand against Apep and demanded that he be treated with great respect. He even threatened Ra that if he was not treated well enough he would bring storms against him. Ra eventually tired of his taunting and expelled Set from his barque, relying on the help of the other gods to complete his nightly journey.
He was thought to have white skin and red hair, and people with red hair were thought to be his followers. He was associated with the desert (which takes its name from the Egyptian word "dshrt" - the red place). He represented the fierce dry heat of the sun as it parched the land, and was infertile like the desert. Initially he probably represented the desert near Nubt, but soon he represented all deserts and foreign lands, becoming a god of overseas trade. Set had been associated with the desert and foreigners for some time before the Hyksos took over parts of lower Egypt. However, when they took him as their main god, this broke Set's association withLower Egypt. His name was erased from monuments and his statues destroyed. All of his negative attributes were emphasised and his positive side was ignored.
But Set's fortunes soon changed. The Pharaohs of the Nineteenth Dynasty were from the Delta area where worship of Set was still popular. It is also interesting that both Seti I (who even named himself after Set) and Ramesses II seem to have had red hair. Although Amun was the state god, Set was more highly venerated in the Delta. Ramesses II's divided his army into four divisions, and named one after Set. When he fought the Hittities he was described as being "like Set in the moment of his power" and "like Set, great-of-strength". He even named his daughter Bint-Anat (Daughter of Anath, Set's wife).
The Greeks associated Set with Typhon, the largest monster ever born. Typhon was the son of the Earth and Tartarus (the place of torture in Hades), and thoroughly evil. Both were storm gods associated with the colour red and with pigs (whose meat was considered to be unclean by many cultures including the Egyptians). However, unlike Typhon Set had a protective role and even in his negative aspects the Egyptians understood his place in the world. He was dangerous and unpredictable, but could be a powerful friend. During the Ptolemaic period a temple to both Horus and Sobek (who was often associated with Set as both took the form of a crocodile) was built south of Nubt and named Ombos (now known as Kom Ombos) after the god of the ancient city - Set.
NUT
Nut (Nuit, Nwt) was the personification of the sky and the heavens. She was the daughter Shu and Tefnut and the granddaughter of the creator god (Atum orRa). Her husband/brother was Geb the earth god. However, she could also be said to be the mother of Ra. The Coffin Texts refer to her as "she of the braided hair who bore the gods". In one myth Nut gives birth to the Sun-god daily and he passes over her body during the day before being swallowed at night only to be reborn the next morning. According to another myth Ra used the Atet (or Matet) boat to travel across her body until noon and then used the Sektet boat until sunset.
She was also thought to be the mother of five children on the five extra days of the Egyptian calendar known as the "epagomenal days of the year". Apparently, Ra became annoyed because Geb and Nut were locked in a perpetual embrace so he asked Shu to sperarate them. He also decreed that Nut should not bear children on any day in the calendar, but Thoth won the five "epagomenal" days days from the moon and Nut had five children: Osiris who was born on the first day, Horus the Elder on the second, Set on the third, Isis on the fourth, and Nephthys the last born on the fifth day. These days were a time of celebration all over Egypt.
She was a cow goddess who adopted some of the attributes of Hathor. When Ra became tired of ruling, she up into the heavens on her back in the form of a cow. However, she generally takes the form of a naked woman covered with stars, holding her body up in an arch, facing downwards. Her arms and legs were the pillars of the sky, and hands and feet were thought to touch the ground at the four cardinal points on the horizon. Geb is often depicted beneath her (sometimes ithphallyically). She was just portraid as a woman wearing one of the hieroglyphs that made up her name, a round Egyptian pot.
Because of her role in the rebirth of the sun, she became a mother-like protector of the dead who was often painted on the inside lid of the sarcophagus, protecting the mummy. Her symbols, a wooden "maqet" ("ladder") charm, was placed inside the tomb to help the deceased climb to the heavens. There were many festivals to Nut through the year, including the "Festival of Nut and Ra" and the "Feast of Nut" and she appears in numerous depictions, yet no temples or specific cult centres are linked to her.
She was also thought to be the mother of five children on the five extra days of the Egyptian calendar known as the "epagomenal days of the year". Apparently, Ra became annoyed because Geb and Nut were locked in a perpetual embrace so he asked Shu to sperarate them. He also decreed that Nut should not bear children on any day in the calendar, but Thoth won the five "epagomenal" days days from the moon and Nut had five children: Osiris who was born on the first day, Horus the Elder on the second, Set on the third, Isis on the fourth, and Nephthys the last born on the fifth day. These days were a time of celebration all over Egypt.
She was a cow goddess who adopted some of the attributes of Hathor. When Ra became tired of ruling, she up into the heavens on her back in the form of a cow. However, she generally takes the form of a naked woman covered with stars, holding her body up in an arch, facing downwards. Her arms and legs were the pillars of the sky, and hands and feet were thought to touch the ground at the four cardinal points on the horizon. Geb is often depicted beneath her (sometimes ithphallyically). She was just portraid as a woman wearing one of the hieroglyphs that made up her name, a round Egyptian pot.
Because of her role in the rebirth of the sun, she became a mother-like protector of the dead who was often painted on the inside lid of the sarcophagus, protecting the mummy. Her symbols, a wooden "maqet" ("ladder") charm, was placed inside the tomb to help the deceased climb to the heavens. There were many festivals to Nut through the year, including the "Festival of Nut and Ra" and the "Feast of Nut" and she appears in numerous depictions, yet no temples or specific cult centres are linked to her.
GEB
In Ancient Egypt Geb (also known as Seb, Keb, Kebb or Gebb) was a god of the earth and one of theEnnead of Heliopolis. His grandfather was Atum (the self-created creator god), his father was Shu (the god of air) and his mother was Tefnut (the goddess of moisture). Osiris, Isis, Seth and Nephthys were the children of Geb and his sister-wife Nut (the goddess of the sky). Geb was the third divine pharaoh, reigning after his father, Shu, and before Osiris. He also supported Horus' right to the throne following the death of Osiris. As the Egyptians believed that the pharaoh was the living image of Horus, the pharaoh was sometimes known as the "Heir of Geb".
In the book of the dead, the Pharaoh says "I am decreed to be the Heir, the Lord of the Earth of Geb. I have union with women. Geb hath refreshed me, and he hath caused me to ascend his throne." One ceremony to mark the accession of a new pharaoh involved the release of four wild geese, to the four corners of the sky, to bring luck to the new king. During the Ptolemaic period, Geb became identified with the Greek god Kronos (time).
It is thought that his worship originated around Iunu (Heliopolis) during the pre-dynastic period but may postdate the worship of Aker (another earth god). It seems that Geb was largely worshiped as a goose, his sacred animal, during the pre-dynastic period. Edfu (Apollinopolis Magna) was called the "Aat of Geb," and Dendera was also known as "the home of the children of Geb". It may seem strange to have a male earth god (most cultures associating the earth with femal power) but Geb was sometimes considered to be bisexual. In his shrine in Bata in Iunu he laid the great Egg (symbolised rebirth and renewal) from which the Sun-god arose in the from of a phoenix or Benben. He was given the epithet "The great Cackler" because of the noise he made when the egg was laid.
He was also called the "Rpt" (the hereditary, tribal chief of the gods), and the earth itself was referred to as "pr-gb-b" ("The House of Geb"). Earthquakes were thought to be his laughter and it was he who supplied the minerals and precious stones found in the earth, as a god of mines and caves. The sign used in his name became associated with vegetation and the lush farming land by the Nile. It was said that barley grew on his ribs and he was depicted with green patches of vegetation all over his body. As a god of the harvest, he was sometimes considered to be the spouse of Renenutet, the cobra godess.
He had authority over the tombs buried in the earth, and assisted in the ritual of weighing the heart of the deceased in the Halls of Ma´at. The justified dead were given words of power which allowed them to ascend to the sky, while those whose hearts were weighed down with guilt were trapped in the earth by Geb. Thus, he could be a malevolent being as well as beneficial deity, imprisoning the dead in his body. His wife Nut was often depicted on the cover of a sarcophagus, while Geb was represented by the base indicating that the justified dead were protected by both deities.
According to another creation myth, Geb and Nut angered the sun god Ra, their grandfather, because they were locked in a perpetual embrace. On the orders of Ra, they were separated by Shu who stood on Geb and lifted Nut high up above him - creating our atmosphere by separating the sky from the earth. However, Nutwas found to be pregnant and gave birth to Osiris, Horus the Elder, Set, Isis and Nephthys. Geb still longed for his sister, and was often depicted lying prone with his erect phallus pointing towards her body. He wept when he was separated from her, and so created the oceans of the world.
However, it seems that his lust did not stop there. The Phakussa Stele (Ptolemaic period) tells of Geb´s infatuation with his mother, Tefnut. His father Shu fought with the followers of the serpent Apep, and was weakened by this battle. Shu ascended to the heavens to recuperate. When Shu was gone, Geb sought out his mother and raped her. Nine days of darkness and storms followed and then Geb went to take his father´s place as Pharaoh, but when he reached out to the cobra (ureas) on the crown of Re, it read his guilt and killed all of his companions and severely wounded him. It was only by the application of a lock of Ra's hair that Geb was saved. Despite his heinous crime, Geb went on to be a good king who protected the land and its people.
Geb was usually depicted as a man wearing a combination of the white crown and the Atef crown, although he was also depicted as a goose - his sacred animal. When he takes the form of a man he is generally prone (as a personification of the earth) and sometimes coloured green with vegetation growing from his body. As the Earth, he is often seen lying beneath the sky goddess Nut, leaning on one elbow, with one knee bent toward the sky, (echoing the shape of two mountains and a valley).
In the book of the dead, the Pharaoh says "I am decreed to be the Heir, the Lord of the Earth of Geb. I have union with women. Geb hath refreshed me, and he hath caused me to ascend his throne." One ceremony to mark the accession of a new pharaoh involved the release of four wild geese, to the four corners of the sky, to bring luck to the new king. During the Ptolemaic period, Geb became identified with the Greek god Kronos (time).
It is thought that his worship originated around Iunu (Heliopolis) during the pre-dynastic period but may postdate the worship of Aker (another earth god). It seems that Geb was largely worshiped as a goose, his sacred animal, during the pre-dynastic period. Edfu (Apollinopolis Magna) was called the "Aat of Geb," and Dendera was also known as "the home of the children of Geb". It may seem strange to have a male earth god (most cultures associating the earth with femal power) but Geb was sometimes considered to be bisexual. In his shrine in Bata in Iunu he laid the great Egg (symbolised rebirth and renewal) from which the Sun-god arose in the from of a phoenix or Benben. He was given the epithet "The great Cackler" because of the noise he made when the egg was laid.
He was also called the "Rpt" (the hereditary, tribal chief of the gods), and the earth itself was referred to as "pr-gb-b" ("The House of Geb"). Earthquakes were thought to be his laughter and it was he who supplied the minerals and precious stones found in the earth, as a god of mines and caves. The sign used in his name became associated with vegetation and the lush farming land by the Nile. It was said that barley grew on his ribs and he was depicted with green patches of vegetation all over his body. As a god of the harvest, he was sometimes considered to be the spouse of Renenutet, the cobra godess.
He had authority over the tombs buried in the earth, and assisted in the ritual of weighing the heart of the deceased in the Halls of Ma´at. The justified dead were given words of power which allowed them to ascend to the sky, while those whose hearts were weighed down with guilt were trapped in the earth by Geb. Thus, he could be a malevolent being as well as beneficial deity, imprisoning the dead in his body. His wife Nut was often depicted on the cover of a sarcophagus, while Geb was represented by the base indicating that the justified dead were protected by both deities.
According to another creation myth, Geb and Nut angered the sun god Ra, their grandfather, because they were locked in a perpetual embrace. On the orders of Ra, they were separated by Shu who stood on Geb and lifted Nut high up above him - creating our atmosphere by separating the sky from the earth. However, Nutwas found to be pregnant and gave birth to Osiris, Horus the Elder, Set, Isis and Nephthys. Geb still longed for his sister, and was often depicted lying prone with his erect phallus pointing towards her body. He wept when he was separated from her, and so created the oceans of the world.
However, it seems that his lust did not stop there. The Phakussa Stele (Ptolemaic period) tells of Geb´s infatuation with his mother, Tefnut. His father Shu fought with the followers of the serpent Apep, and was weakened by this battle. Shu ascended to the heavens to recuperate. When Shu was gone, Geb sought out his mother and raped her. Nine days of darkness and storms followed and then Geb went to take his father´s place as Pharaoh, but when he reached out to the cobra (ureas) on the crown of Re, it read his guilt and killed all of his companions and severely wounded him. It was only by the application of a lock of Ra's hair that Geb was saved. Despite his heinous crime, Geb went on to be a good king who protected the land and its people.
Geb was usually depicted as a man wearing a combination of the white crown and the Atef crown, although he was also depicted as a goose - his sacred animal. When he takes the form of a man he is generally prone (as a personification of the earth) and sometimes coloured green with vegetation growing from his body. As the Earth, he is often seen lying beneath the sky goddess Nut, leaning on one elbow, with one knee bent toward the sky, (echoing the shape of two mountains and a valley).
ATUM
Atum (also known as Tem or Temu) was the first and most important Ancient Egyptian god to be worshiped in Iunu (Heliopolis, Lower Egypt), although in later times Ra rose in importance in the city, and eclipsed him to some extent. He was the main deity of Per-Tem ("house of Atum") in Pithom in the eastern Delta.
Although he was at his most popular in the Old Kingdom in Lower Egypt, he is often closely associated with the Pharaoh all over Egypt. During the New Kingdom, Atum and the Theban god Montu (Montju) are depicted with the king in the Temple of Amun at Karnak. In the Late Period, amulets of lizards were worn as a token of the god.
Atum was the creator god in the Heliopolitan Ennead. The earliest record of Atum is the Pyramid Texts (inscribed in some of the Pyramids of the Pharaohs of dynasty five and six) and the Coffin Texts (created soon after for the tombs of nobles).
In the beginning there was nothing (Nun). A mound of earth rose from Nun and upon it Atum created himself. He spat Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture) from his mouth. Atum's two offspring became separated from him and lost in the dark nothingness, so Atum sent his "Eye" to look for them (a precursor to the "Eye of Ra", an epithet given to many deities at different times). When they were found, he named Shu as "life" and Tefnut as "order" and entwined them together.
Atum became tired and wanted a place to rest, so he kissed his daugther Tefnut, and created the first mound (Iunu) to rise from the waters of Nun. Shu and Tefnut gave birth to the earth (Geb) and the sky (Nut) who in turn give birth to Osiris, Isis, Set, Nephthys and Horus the elder. In later versions of the myth, Atum produces Shu and Tefnut by masturbation and splits up Geb and Nut because he is jealous of their constant copulation.
However, his creative nature has two sides. In the Book of the Dead, Atum tells Osiris that he will eventually destroy the world, submerging everything back into the primal waters (Nun), which were all that existed at the beginning of time. In this nonexistence, Atum and Osiris will survive in the form of serpents.
Atum, Ra, Horakhty and Khepri made up the different aspects of the sun. Atum was the setting sun which travelled through the underworld every night. He was also linked with solar theology, as the self-developing scarab who represented the newly created sun. As a result he is combined with Ra (the rising sun) in both the Pyramid and Coffin Texts as Re-Atum he who "emerges from the eastern horizon" and "rests in the western horizon". In other words as Re-Atum he died every night at dusk before resurrecting himself at dawn. The combined with the ruler of the gods. In this form, Atum also symbolized the setting sun and its journey through the underworld to its rising in the east.
Atum was the father of the gods, creating the first divine couple, Shu and Tefnut, from whom all the other gods are descended. He was also considered to be the father of the Pharaohs. Many Pharaohs used the title "Son of Atum" long after the power base moved from Iunu. Atum's close relationship to the king is seen in many cultic rituals, and in the coronation rites. A papyrus dating to the Late period shows that the god was of central importance to the New Year's festival in which the king's role was reconfirmed. From New Kingdom onwards, he often made an appearance inscribing royal names on the leaves of the sacred ished tree, and in some Lower Egyptian inscriptions Atum is shown crowning the Pharaoh (for example the shrine of Ramesses II in Pithom).
Texts in the New Kingdom tombs of the Valley of the Kings near Thebes depict Atum as an aged, ram-headed man who supervises the punishment of evildoers and the enemies of the sun god. He also repels some of the evil forces in the netherworld such as the serpents Nehebu-Kau and Apep (Apophis). He also provided protection to all good people, ensuring their safe passage past the Lake of Fire where there lurks a deadly dog-headed god who lives by swallowing souls and snatching hearts.
Atum is most usually depicted in anthropomorphic form and is typically shown wearing the dual crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. One of the only details that distinguishes him from a Pharaoh is the shape of his beard. He is also depicted with a solar disk and a long tripartite wig.
In his netherworld role, as well as his solar aspect, he is also often presented with the head of a ram. He may be seated on a throne but may also be shown standing erect, or even leaning on a staff when his old age is stressed. Atum was also represented by the image of the primeval hill. During the the First Intermediate period "Atum and his Hand" even appear as a divine couple on some coffins. He was represented by the black bull Mnewer, who bore the sun disk and uraeus between its horns. The snake, bull, lion, lizard and ichneumon (Egyptian mongoose) are his sacred animals. As an ape, he was sometimes armed with a bow with which to shoot his enemies. In his aspect as a solar deity, he was also depicted as a scarab and the giant scarab statue which now stands by the sacred lake at Karnak was dedicated to Atum. Also, numerous small bronze coffins containing mummified eels, bearing a figure of the fish on the top of the box and an inscription incised on it, attest to yet another zoomorphic incarnation of Atum.
Representations of Atum are surprisingly rare, but some of the depictions of the Pharaoh as "Lord of the Two Lands" may have also been viewed as incarnations of Atum. The largest of the rare statues of Atum is a group depicting King Horemheb of the 18th Dynasty kneeling in front of Atum.
Although he was at his most popular in the Old Kingdom in Lower Egypt, he is often closely associated with the Pharaoh all over Egypt. During the New Kingdom, Atum and the Theban god Montu (Montju) are depicted with the king in the Temple of Amun at Karnak. In the Late Period, amulets of lizards were worn as a token of the god.
Atum was the creator god in the Heliopolitan Ennead. The earliest record of Atum is the Pyramid Texts (inscribed in some of the Pyramids of the Pharaohs of dynasty five and six) and the Coffin Texts (created soon after for the tombs of nobles).
In the beginning there was nothing (Nun). A mound of earth rose from Nun and upon it Atum created himself. He spat Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture) from his mouth. Atum's two offspring became separated from him and lost in the dark nothingness, so Atum sent his "Eye" to look for them (a precursor to the "Eye of Ra", an epithet given to many deities at different times). When they were found, he named Shu as "life" and Tefnut as "order" and entwined them together.
Atum became tired and wanted a place to rest, so he kissed his daugther Tefnut, and created the first mound (Iunu) to rise from the waters of Nun. Shu and Tefnut gave birth to the earth (Geb) and the sky (Nut) who in turn give birth to Osiris, Isis, Set, Nephthys and Horus the elder. In later versions of the myth, Atum produces Shu and Tefnut by masturbation and splits up Geb and Nut because he is jealous of their constant copulation.
However, his creative nature has two sides. In the Book of the Dead, Atum tells Osiris that he will eventually destroy the world, submerging everything back into the primal waters (Nun), which were all that existed at the beginning of time. In this nonexistence, Atum and Osiris will survive in the form of serpents.
Atum, Ra, Horakhty and Khepri made up the different aspects of the sun. Atum was the setting sun which travelled through the underworld every night. He was also linked with solar theology, as the self-developing scarab who represented the newly created sun. As a result he is combined with Ra (the rising sun) in both the Pyramid and Coffin Texts as Re-Atum he who "emerges from the eastern horizon" and "rests in the western horizon". In other words as Re-Atum he died every night at dusk before resurrecting himself at dawn. The combined with the ruler of the gods. In this form, Atum also symbolized the setting sun and its journey through the underworld to its rising in the east.
Atum was the father of the gods, creating the first divine couple, Shu and Tefnut, from whom all the other gods are descended. He was also considered to be the father of the Pharaohs. Many Pharaohs used the title "Son of Atum" long after the power base moved from Iunu. Atum's close relationship to the king is seen in many cultic rituals, and in the coronation rites. A papyrus dating to the Late period shows that the god was of central importance to the New Year's festival in which the king's role was reconfirmed. From New Kingdom onwards, he often made an appearance inscribing royal names on the leaves of the sacred ished tree, and in some Lower Egyptian inscriptions Atum is shown crowning the Pharaoh (for example the shrine of Ramesses II in Pithom).
Texts in the New Kingdom tombs of the Valley of the Kings near Thebes depict Atum as an aged, ram-headed man who supervises the punishment of evildoers and the enemies of the sun god. He also repels some of the evil forces in the netherworld such as the serpents Nehebu-Kau and Apep (Apophis). He also provided protection to all good people, ensuring their safe passage past the Lake of Fire where there lurks a deadly dog-headed god who lives by swallowing souls and snatching hearts.
Atum is most usually depicted in anthropomorphic form and is typically shown wearing the dual crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. One of the only details that distinguishes him from a Pharaoh is the shape of his beard. He is also depicted with a solar disk and a long tripartite wig.
In his netherworld role, as well as his solar aspect, he is also often presented with the head of a ram. He may be seated on a throne but may also be shown standing erect, or even leaning on a staff when his old age is stressed. Atum was also represented by the image of the primeval hill. During the the First Intermediate period "Atum and his Hand" even appear as a divine couple on some coffins. He was represented by the black bull Mnewer, who bore the sun disk and uraeus between its horns. The snake, bull, lion, lizard and ichneumon (Egyptian mongoose) are his sacred animals. As an ape, he was sometimes armed with a bow with which to shoot his enemies. In his aspect as a solar deity, he was also depicted as a scarab and the giant scarab statue which now stands by the sacred lake at Karnak was dedicated to Atum. Also, numerous small bronze coffins containing mummified eels, bearing a figure of the fish on the top of the box and an inscription incised on it, attest to yet another zoomorphic incarnation of Atum.
Representations of Atum are surprisingly rare, but some of the depictions of the Pharaoh as "Lord of the Two Lands" may have also been viewed as incarnations of Atum. The largest of the rare statues of Atum is a group depicting King Horemheb of the 18th Dynasty kneeling in front of Atum.
THOTH
Thoth (Tehuty, Djehuty, Tahuti, Tehuti, Zehuti, Techu, Tetu) was one of the earlier Egyptian gods. He was popular throughout Egypt, but was particularly venerated in Khnum (Hermopolis Magna) where he wasworshipped as part of the Ogdoad. As the power of his cult grew, the myth was rewritten to make Thoth the creator god. According to this variant, Thoth (in the form of an ibis, one of his sacred animals) laid an egg from which Ra(Atum, Nefertum, or khepri) was born. Other myths suggest that Thoth created himself through the power of language (in an interesting parallel to the phrase in the Gospel according to St John "in the beginning was the word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God"). His song was thought to have created eight deities of the Ogdoad (the gods Nun, Heh, Kuk and Amun and the goddesses Nunet, Hauhet, Kuaket and Amaunet).
The moon and the sun were initially thought of as the left and right eyesof Horus. According to legend, Horus' left eye (the moon) was injured in a fight with Set and was restored by Thoth ("the eye of Horus"). However, as time progressed the moon came to be associated with Thoth, possibly because the crescent moon resembled the beak of an Ibis. During the Late period Thoth gained prominence when Khnum(Hermopolis Magna) became the capital. Archeologists found thousands of mummified ibis who were buried with honour in his name.
Although Osiris and Isis were generally credited with bringing civilisation to mankind, Thoth was also thought to have invented writing, medicine, magic, and the Egyptian´s civil and religious practices. He was even credited with the invention of music, which was more often associated with Hathor. Thoth was the patron of scribes and of the written word. He was scribe of the underworld who recorded the verdict on the deceased in the hall of Ma´at and was given the epithets "He who Balances", "God of the Equilibrium" and "Master of the Balance". Thoth maintained the library of the gods with the help of his wife, Seshat (the goddess of writing). He was the scribe of the gods, and was often described as the "Lord of the Divine Body", "Scribe of the Company of the Gods", the "voice of Ra" or the "counsellor of Ra" who (along with Ma'at) stood on the sun barge next to Ra on his nightly voyage across the sky. It was also thought that Ra gave Thoth and area of the underworld to rule in the "Land of the Caves", He kept a register of those in his realm and decreed just punishments for their transgressions and acted as Ra´s representative in the afterlife. In this role, his wife was Ma´at.
It was said that he was the author of the spells in the "Book of the Dead" and "Book of Breathings" (which was also attributed to Isis) and he was given the grand title, the "Author of Every Work on Every Branch of Knowledge, Both Human and Divine". Egyptian mythology speaks of the "Book of Thoth" in which the god inscribed all of the secrets of the universe. Anyone who read it would become the most powerful sorcerer in the world, but would be cursed by their knowledge. Needless to say, people have been searching for this text despite the warning, and some more "colourful" theories propose that it is hidden in a secret chamber in or near the Great Pyramid. This book is said by some to be the "emerald tablets of Thoth" a work of dubious authenticity which suggests that Thoth and the other gods were from Atlantis.
Thoth was a great magician who knew "all that is hidden under the heavenly vault". He used his knowledge to help Isis after the murder of her husbandOsiris by his brother Set. With the help of Anubis he created the first mummification ritual and helped resurrect Osiris (albeit in the land of the Dead). He also protected Isis´s son Horus by driving a magical poison from his body when he was very young and supported him in his fight to gain the throne which was rightfully his.
Many of the Egyptians religious and civil rituals were organised according to a lunar calendar. As Thoth was associated with writing and with the moon it is perhaps unsurprising that he was also linked to the creation of the calendar. As his association with the moon waned, he developed into a god of wisdom, magic and the measurement of time. Similarly he was considered to measure and record time. He was known by the epithets; "the One who Made Calculations Concerning the Heavens, the Stars and the Earth", "the Reckoner of Time and of Seasons" and "the one who Measured out the Heavens and Planned the Earth". Thoth was thought to be the inventor of the 365-day calendar (which replaced the inaccurate 360 day calendar). According to myth, he earned the extra days by gambling with the moon (Iabet or Khonsu) in a game of dice to help the goddess Nut. She was pregnant by her brother / husband Geb but Ra forbade her to give birth on any day of the Egyptian calendar. Thoth won a portion of light from the moon (1/72) which equated to five new days, and Nut gave birth to her five children on those days (Osiris, Horus the Elder, Set, Isis and Nephthys).
He was also known as a good counsellor and persuasive speaker. In one version of an ancient myth Thoth and Shu were sent by Ra to persuade the "eye of Ra" (in this version usually in the form of Tefnut) to come home when she left Egypt for Nubia. According to the myth, all of the precious water left Egypt with her causing the land to become parched and dry. Meanwhile she was rampaging around Nubia killing animals and humans and drinking their blood. Thoth and Shu disguised themselves as baboons (an animal sacred to Thoth) and began their search for the wayward goddess. However, when they found her she refused to come home because she was perfectly happy where she was. Thoth told her that Egypt missed her terribly and that the whole land was suffering in her absence and he promised her great processions and celebrations if she would come home. Eventually she agreed, won round by his extravagant tales and the three returned to Egypt accompanied by Nubian musicians, dancers and baboons. They travelled up the Nile from city to city, bringing back the water, and there was much rejoicing.
He was said to be the husband (or sometimes father) of Seshat, an ancient goddess of wisdom. As time passed he gradually absorbed most of Seshat´s roles, and she was seen largely as his female aspect. They had a child called Hornub. At Khnum (Hermopolis) he was the husband of Nehmauit (Nahmauit, Nehmetaway), goddess of protection. Their child was the god Neferhor. He was also sometimes considered to be the husband of Ma´at. Because he could take the form of a baboon, he was sometimes described as the partner of Astennu (one of the male baboons who lived in the underworld), although it was also stated that Astennu was simply an aspect of Thoth.
He was most often depicted as a man with the head of an ibis. He often holds a scribe's palette and stylus but could also be depicted with an ankh (representing life) and a sceptre (representing power). Thoth sometimes wore a crescent moon on his head, but was also depicted wearing the Atef crown, and the double crown of Upper andLower Egypt. When he was acting as the "voice of Ra", he carried the "Eye of Ra" (a symbol of the power of the sun). Occasionally he was depicted as an ibis, or a baboon. It is thought that the bird was associated with the moon because of its crescent shaped beak, and the baboon is nocturnal animal which has the peculiar habit of chattering at the sun every day before going to sleep.
The Greeks associated Thoth with the messenger god Hermes. The two deities were combined to form Hermes Trismegistus and Khmun was renamed Hermopolis ("city of Hermes"). This version of Thoth remains popular with occultists today.
The moon and the sun were initially thought of as the left and right eyesof Horus. According to legend, Horus' left eye (the moon) was injured in a fight with Set and was restored by Thoth ("the eye of Horus"). However, as time progressed the moon came to be associated with Thoth, possibly because the crescent moon resembled the beak of an Ibis. During the Late period Thoth gained prominence when Khnum(Hermopolis Magna) became the capital. Archeologists found thousands of mummified ibis who were buried with honour in his name.
Although Osiris and Isis were generally credited with bringing civilisation to mankind, Thoth was also thought to have invented writing, medicine, magic, and the Egyptian´s civil and religious practices. He was even credited with the invention of music, which was more often associated with Hathor. Thoth was the patron of scribes and of the written word. He was scribe of the underworld who recorded the verdict on the deceased in the hall of Ma´at and was given the epithets "He who Balances", "God of the Equilibrium" and "Master of the Balance". Thoth maintained the library of the gods with the help of his wife, Seshat (the goddess of writing). He was the scribe of the gods, and was often described as the "Lord of the Divine Body", "Scribe of the Company of the Gods", the "voice of Ra" or the "counsellor of Ra" who (along with Ma'at) stood on the sun barge next to Ra on his nightly voyage across the sky. It was also thought that Ra gave Thoth and area of the underworld to rule in the "Land of the Caves", He kept a register of those in his realm and decreed just punishments for their transgressions and acted as Ra´s representative in the afterlife. In this role, his wife was Ma´at.
It was said that he was the author of the spells in the "Book of the Dead" and "Book of Breathings" (which was also attributed to Isis) and he was given the grand title, the "Author of Every Work on Every Branch of Knowledge, Both Human and Divine". Egyptian mythology speaks of the "Book of Thoth" in which the god inscribed all of the secrets of the universe. Anyone who read it would become the most powerful sorcerer in the world, but would be cursed by their knowledge. Needless to say, people have been searching for this text despite the warning, and some more "colourful" theories propose that it is hidden in a secret chamber in or near the Great Pyramid. This book is said by some to be the "emerald tablets of Thoth" a work of dubious authenticity which suggests that Thoth and the other gods were from Atlantis.
Thoth was a great magician who knew "all that is hidden under the heavenly vault". He used his knowledge to help Isis after the murder of her husbandOsiris by his brother Set. With the help of Anubis he created the first mummification ritual and helped resurrect Osiris (albeit in the land of the Dead). He also protected Isis´s son Horus by driving a magical poison from his body when he was very young and supported him in his fight to gain the throne which was rightfully his.
Many of the Egyptians religious and civil rituals were organised according to a lunar calendar. As Thoth was associated with writing and with the moon it is perhaps unsurprising that he was also linked to the creation of the calendar. As his association with the moon waned, he developed into a god of wisdom, magic and the measurement of time. Similarly he was considered to measure and record time. He was known by the epithets; "the One who Made Calculations Concerning the Heavens, the Stars and the Earth", "the Reckoner of Time and of Seasons" and "the one who Measured out the Heavens and Planned the Earth". Thoth was thought to be the inventor of the 365-day calendar (which replaced the inaccurate 360 day calendar). According to myth, he earned the extra days by gambling with the moon (Iabet or Khonsu) in a game of dice to help the goddess Nut. She was pregnant by her brother / husband Geb but Ra forbade her to give birth on any day of the Egyptian calendar. Thoth won a portion of light from the moon (1/72) which equated to five new days, and Nut gave birth to her five children on those days (Osiris, Horus the Elder, Set, Isis and Nephthys).
He was also known as a good counsellor and persuasive speaker. In one version of an ancient myth Thoth and Shu were sent by Ra to persuade the "eye of Ra" (in this version usually in the form of Tefnut) to come home when she left Egypt for Nubia. According to the myth, all of the precious water left Egypt with her causing the land to become parched and dry. Meanwhile she was rampaging around Nubia killing animals and humans and drinking their blood. Thoth and Shu disguised themselves as baboons (an animal sacred to Thoth) and began their search for the wayward goddess. However, when they found her she refused to come home because she was perfectly happy where she was. Thoth told her that Egypt missed her terribly and that the whole land was suffering in her absence and he promised her great processions and celebrations if she would come home. Eventually she agreed, won round by his extravagant tales and the three returned to Egypt accompanied by Nubian musicians, dancers and baboons. They travelled up the Nile from city to city, bringing back the water, and there was much rejoicing.
He was said to be the husband (or sometimes father) of Seshat, an ancient goddess of wisdom. As time passed he gradually absorbed most of Seshat´s roles, and she was seen largely as his female aspect. They had a child called Hornub. At Khnum (Hermopolis) he was the husband of Nehmauit (Nahmauit, Nehmetaway), goddess of protection. Their child was the god Neferhor. He was also sometimes considered to be the husband of Ma´at. Because he could take the form of a baboon, he was sometimes described as the partner of Astennu (one of the male baboons who lived in the underworld), although it was also stated that Astennu was simply an aspect of Thoth.
He was most often depicted as a man with the head of an ibis. He often holds a scribe's palette and stylus but could also be depicted with an ankh (representing life) and a sceptre (representing power). Thoth sometimes wore a crescent moon on his head, but was also depicted wearing the Atef crown, and the double crown of Upper andLower Egypt. When he was acting as the "voice of Ra", he carried the "Eye of Ra" (a symbol of the power of the sun). Occasionally he was depicted as an ibis, or a baboon. It is thought that the bird was associated with the moon because of its crescent shaped beak, and the baboon is nocturnal animal which has the peculiar habit of chattering at the sun every day before going to sleep.
The Greeks associated Thoth with the messenger god Hermes. The two deities were combined to form Hermes Trismegistus and Khmun was renamed Hermopolis ("city of Hermes"). This version of Thoth remains popular with occultists today.
SHU
Shu (Su) was the god of light and air and as such personified the wind and the earth's atmosphere. As the god of light he represented illuminated the primordial darkness and marked the separation between day and night and between the world of the living and the world of the dead. As the god of air, he represented the space between the earth and the heavens, and gave the breath of life to all living creatures. As a god of the wind, sailors invoked him to provide the good wind to power their boats. The clouds were considered to be his bones, and he supported the ladder by which the deceased souls could reach the heavens.
Shu was one of the Ennead of Heliopolis, and the first to be created by the self created god Atum who created him from his own spittle. He was the husband and brother of Tefnut (moisture), and father of the Nut (sky) and Geb (earth). It was thought that his children were infatuated with each other, and remained locked in a perpetual embrace. Shu intervened and held Nut (the sky) above him separating her from his son Geb (the earth). Thus Shu created the atmosphere which allowed life to flourish. Four pillars located at the cardinal points of the world helped Shu maintain the separation of earth and sky, and were known as the "Pillars of Shu".
Although he embodied light, and so had a solar aspect, he was not strictly a solar deity. However, he was closely connected to the sun god, Ra (or Atum). He protected the sun god from the snake-demon Apep as he travelled through the underworld or the night sky, and brought the sun to life every morning.
He was also thought to be the second divine pharaoh, ruling after Ra. However, Apep's followers plotted his downfall and launched a vicious attack against the divine Pharaoh. Although Shu defeated Apep and his minions, he became gravely ill from the contact with the corrupt entities. In his weakened state even his own son Geb turned against him, and so Shu abdicated the throne leaving Geb to rule in his place. He returned to the skies to protect the sun and to wage his daily battle with Apep. However, (in common with many of the protective deities) he had a darker side. He attended the judgement of each dead soul in the Halls of Ma´at (order or justice) and lead the terrifying demons who punished the souls deemed to be corrupt.
His name is thought to be derived from the word for dryness "shu", the root of words such as "dry", "parched", "withered", "sunlight" and "empty". However, it is also proposed that his name means "He who Rises Up".
He was generally depicted as a man wearing a headdress composed of ostrich feathers carrying a Was sceptre (representing power) and an Ankh (representing the breath of life). Alternatively, he wore a headdress of a single ostrich feather (like that of Ma´at) which represented the breath of life. Occasionally, he wore a sun disk on his head due to his connection with the sun god. His skin was often painted black, possibly to represent his connection with Nubia or to emphasise his role in the rebirth of the sun god. He is commonly shown standing on the body of Geb with his arms raised to support Nut. When he is linked with his wife Tefnut, he often appears as a lion and the two were known as the "twin lion gods". Less often he is given the hind parts of a lion and the body and head of a man.
In one myth, Shu and Tefnut went to explore the waters of Nun. Ra missed them dreadfully and believed that they were lost to him, so he sent his "Eye" to find them. When they returned, Ra wept, and created the first humans from his tears. Another myth states that the "Eye of Ra" (in this case Tefnut) left for Nubia following a dispute with Ra. Thoth and Shu were sent to persuade her to return so that she could protect her father. When he successfully persuaded her to return, Shu was married to Tefnut. Because of this he was closely associated with the hunter god Anuhur (meaning "he who brings back the distant one") whose wife Menhet (who was also depicted as a lioness) also disappeared to Nubia and had to be brought home again.
Shu was also identified with a fairly obscure Meroitic god named "Ari-hes-nefer" (or Arensnuphis to the Greeks) who also took the form of a lion. The Egyptian and Nubian kings often had themselves depicted as Shu, as the first born of the sun god and a divine ruler.
There is no record of any temple specifically dedicated to Shu, but he was respected and revered all over Egypt. At Iunet (Dendera), though, there was a part of the city known as "The House of Shu" (shw-w-ntr) and at Djeba (Utes-Hor, Behde, Edfu) there was a place known as "The Seat of Shu" (shw-w) and he was worshiped in connection with the Ennead at Iunu. His main sanctuary was in Nay-ta-hut (now known as tell el-Yahudiya, or the mound of the Jews) where he and his wife Tefnutwere worshipped in their leonine forms. The Greeks renamed the city Leontopolis because of their popularity in the area. A local creation myth stated that they first took form as a pair of lion cubs and grew into the two lions that guarded the eastern and western borders (linking Shu and Tefnut with Aker). In this form Shu and Tefnutoften appeared on headrests to protect the owner as they slept (such as the ivory example from the tomb of Tutankhamun).
During the "Aten heresy" led by Akhenaten, Shu and Tefnut remained popular with the apparently monotheistic Pharaoh. The Pharaoh and his queen (Nefertiti) were depicted as the personification of Shu and Tefnut emphasising their divinity. As the Aten represented the sun disk, the solar aspect of Shu and his link with the Pharaoh apparently prevented Shu from being proscribed along with Amun and the other gods.
Shu was one of the Ennead of Heliopolis, and the first to be created by the self created god Atum who created him from his own spittle. He was the husband and brother of Tefnut (moisture), and father of the Nut (sky) and Geb (earth). It was thought that his children were infatuated with each other, and remained locked in a perpetual embrace. Shu intervened and held Nut (the sky) above him separating her from his son Geb (the earth). Thus Shu created the atmosphere which allowed life to flourish. Four pillars located at the cardinal points of the world helped Shu maintain the separation of earth and sky, and were known as the "Pillars of Shu".
Although he embodied light, and so had a solar aspect, he was not strictly a solar deity. However, he was closely connected to the sun god, Ra (or Atum). He protected the sun god from the snake-demon Apep as he travelled through the underworld or the night sky, and brought the sun to life every morning.
He was also thought to be the second divine pharaoh, ruling after Ra. However, Apep's followers plotted his downfall and launched a vicious attack against the divine Pharaoh. Although Shu defeated Apep and his minions, he became gravely ill from the contact with the corrupt entities. In his weakened state even his own son Geb turned against him, and so Shu abdicated the throne leaving Geb to rule in his place. He returned to the skies to protect the sun and to wage his daily battle with Apep. However, (in common with many of the protective deities) he had a darker side. He attended the judgement of each dead soul in the Halls of Ma´at (order or justice) and lead the terrifying demons who punished the souls deemed to be corrupt.
His name is thought to be derived from the word for dryness "shu", the root of words such as "dry", "parched", "withered", "sunlight" and "empty". However, it is also proposed that his name means "He who Rises Up".
He was generally depicted as a man wearing a headdress composed of ostrich feathers carrying a Was sceptre (representing power) and an Ankh (representing the breath of life). Alternatively, he wore a headdress of a single ostrich feather (like that of Ma´at) which represented the breath of life. Occasionally, he wore a sun disk on his head due to his connection with the sun god. His skin was often painted black, possibly to represent his connection with Nubia or to emphasise his role in the rebirth of the sun god. He is commonly shown standing on the body of Geb with his arms raised to support Nut. When he is linked with his wife Tefnut, he often appears as a lion and the two were known as the "twin lion gods". Less often he is given the hind parts of a lion and the body and head of a man.
In one myth, Shu and Tefnut went to explore the waters of Nun. Ra missed them dreadfully and believed that they were lost to him, so he sent his "Eye" to find them. When they returned, Ra wept, and created the first humans from his tears. Another myth states that the "Eye of Ra" (in this case Tefnut) left for Nubia following a dispute with Ra. Thoth and Shu were sent to persuade her to return so that she could protect her father. When he successfully persuaded her to return, Shu was married to Tefnut. Because of this he was closely associated with the hunter god Anuhur (meaning "he who brings back the distant one") whose wife Menhet (who was also depicted as a lioness) also disappeared to Nubia and had to be brought home again.
Shu was also identified with a fairly obscure Meroitic god named "Ari-hes-nefer" (or Arensnuphis to the Greeks) who also took the form of a lion. The Egyptian and Nubian kings often had themselves depicted as Shu, as the first born of the sun god and a divine ruler.
There is no record of any temple specifically dedicated to Shu, but he was respected and revered all over Egypt. At Iunet (Dendera), though, there was a part of the city known as "The House of Shu" (shw-w-ntr) and at Djeba (Utes-Hor, Behde, Edfu) there was a place known as "The Seat of Shu" (shw-w) and he was worshiped in connection with the Ennead at Iunu. His main sanctuary was in Nay-ta-hut (now known as tell el-Yahudiya, or the mound of the Jews) where he and his wife Tefnutwere worshipped in their leonine forms. The Greeks renamed the city Leontopolis because of their popularity in the area. A local creation myth stated that they first took form as a pair of lion cubs and grew into the two lions that guarded the eastern and western borders (linking Shu and Tefnut with Aker). In this form Shu and Tefnutoften appeared on headrests to protect the owner as they slept (such as the ivory example from the tomb of Tutankhamun).
During the "Aten heresy" led by Akhenaten, Shu and Tefnut remained popular with the apparently monotheistic Pharaoh. The Pharaoh and his queen (Nefertiti) were depicted as the personification of Shu and Tefnut emphasising their divinity. As the Aten represented the sun disk, the solar aspect of Shu and his link with the Pharaoh apparently prevented Shu from being proscribed along with Amun and the other gods.
NEPHTHYS
Nephthys was an ancient goddess, who was referenced in texts dating back to the Old Kingdom. She was a member of theEnnead of Heliopolis as the daughter of Geb and Nut and the sister of Osiris, Isis and Horus and the sister and wife of Set. When the Ennead and Ogdoad merged, Nephthys was given a place on Ra's boat so that she could accompany him on his journey through the underworld.
Nephthys is the Greek pronunciation of her name. To the Ancient Egyptians she was Nebthwt (Nebhhwt or Nebthet) meaning "the Mistress of the House". The word "hwt" ("house") may refer to the sky (as in Hwt-hor, the "House of Horus" - the name of Hathor), but it also refers to either the royal family or Egypt as a whole. The latter makes a great deal of sense as she was described as the head of the household of the gods and was thought to extend her protection to the head female of every household. She was sometimes associated with Ptah-Tanen in representing Lower Egypt, while Khnum and Isis representedUpper Egypt.
It seems that she was originally conceived of as the female counterpart of Set. He represented the desert, while she represented the air. Set was infertile (like the desert that he represented) and was frequently described as either bisexual or gay and so Nephthys was often considered to be barren. As a goddess of the air, she could take the form of a bird, and because she was barren she was associated with the vulture - a bird which the Egyptians believed did not bear children. The Egyptians thought that all vultures were female (because there is very little difference in the appearance of a male vulture), and that they were spontaneously created from the air. While the care shown by a mother vulture for her child was highly respected, the Egyptians also recognised that vultures fed on carrion and associated them with death and decay. As a result, Nephthys became a goddess of death and mourning.
Professional mourners were known as the "Hawks of Nephthys", in recognition of her role as a goddess of mourning. It was also believed that she protected Hapi in his role as of the Four sons of Horus (who guarded the organs stored in the four canopic jars). Hapi protected the lungs, and as a goddes of the air Nephthys was his guardian. She was also one of the four goddesses who guarded the shrine buried with the Pharaoh. She appears withIsis, Selkit (Serqet) and Neith on the gilded shrine of Tutankhamun, but was often depicted with Isis, Bast and Hathor in this role. Yet, she was also said to be the source of both rain and the Nile river (associating her with Anuket) and was thought to protect women in childbirth (with the assistance of her sister, Isis). Thus she was closely associated with both death and life.
Although she was technically infertile, later myths claimed that she was the mother of Anubis by either Osiris or Set (depending on the myth). This came about because Anubis' position as the god of the dead was usurped by Osiris when the theologies of the Ennead and theOgdoad merged. According to one myth Nephthys disguised herself as Isis to get the attention of her neglectful husband Set, but instead seduced Osiris (who apparently did not realise that it was Nephthys). An alternative myth made it clear that Nephthys intended to seduce Osiris from the beginning and drugged his wine to make her task easier, while a less common myth held that she did trick her husband into a brief daliance in order to concieve Anubis. It is suggested that this tale also explained the flowering of a plant in a normally barren area because Set apparently discovered the adultery when he found a flower left by his brother Osiris.
Isis and Nephthys were very close despite Nephthys' alleged infidelity with Osiris (the husband of Isis) and her marriage to Set (the murderer of Osiris). Nephthys protected the body of Osirisand supported Isis as she tried to resurrect him. The goddesses are so similar in appearance that only their headdresses can distinguish them and they always appear together in funerary scenes. Together Isis and Nephthys could be said to represent day and night, life and death, growth and decay. In Heliopolis, Isis and Nephthys were represented by two virginal priestesses who shaved off all of their body hair and were ritually pure.
Nephthys was usually depicted as a woman with the hieroglyphs of her name (a basket on top of the glyph representing the plan of an estate) on her head. She could also be depicted as a mourning woman, and her hair was compared to the strips of cloth used in mummification. She also occasionally appears as a hawk, a kite or a winged goddess in her role as a protector of the dead. Her major centers of worships were Heliopolis (Iunu, in the 13th Nome of Lower Egypt), Senu, Hebet, (Behbit), Per-mert, Re-nefert, Het-sekhem, Het-Khas, Ta-kehset, and Diospolites.
Nephthys is the Greek pronunciation of her name. To the Ancient Egyptians she was Nebthwt (Nebhhwt or Nebthet) meaning "the Mistress of the House". The word "hwt" ("house") may refer to the sky (as in Hwt-hor, the "House of Horus" - the name of Hathor), but it also refers to either the royal family or Egypt as a whole. The latter makes a great deal of sense as she was described as the head of the household of the gods and was thought to extend her protection to the head female of every household. She was sometimes associated with Ptah-Tanen in representing Lower Egypt, while Khnum and Isis representedUpper Egypt.
It seems that she was originally conceived of as the female counterpart of Set. He represented the desert, while she represented the air. Set was infertile (like the desert that he represented) and was frequently described as either bisexual or gay and so Nephthys was often considered to be barren. As a goddess of the air, she could take the form of a bird, and because she was barren she was associated with the vulture - a bird which the Egyptians believed did not bear children. The Egyptians thought that all vultures were female (because there is very little difference in the appearance of a male vulture), and that they were spontaneously created from the air. While the care shown by a mother vulture for her child was highly respected, the Egyptians also recognised that vultures fed on carrion and associated them with death and decay. As a result, Nephthys became a goddess of death and mourning.
Professional mourners were known as the "Hawks of Nephthys", in recognition of her role as a goddess of mourning. It was also believed that she protected Hapi in his role as of the Four sons of Horus (who guarded the organs stored in the four canopic jars). Hapi protected the lungs, and as a goddes of the air Nephthys was his guardian. She was also one of the four goddesses who guarded the shrine buried with the Pharaoh. She appears withIsis, Selkit (Serqet) and Neith on the gilded shrine of Tutankhamun, but was often depicted with Isis, Bast and Hathor in this role. Yet, she was also said to be the source of both rain and the Nile river (associating her with Anuket) and was thought to protect women in childbirth (with the assistance of her sister, Isis). Thus she was closely associated with both death and life.
Although she was technically infertile, later myths claimed that she was the mother of Anubis by either Osiris or Set (depending on the myth). This came about because Anubis' position as the god of the dead was usurped by Osiris when the theologies of the Ennead and theOgdoad merged. According to one myth Nephthys disguised herself as Isis to get the attention of her neglectful husband Set, but instead seduced Osiris (who apparently did not realise that it was Nephthys). An alternative myth made it clear that Nephthys intended to seduce Osiris from the beginning and drugged his wine to make her task easier, while a less common myth held that she did trick her husband into a brief daliance in order to concieve Anubis. It is suggested that this tale also explained the flowering of a plant in a normally barren area because Set apparently discovered the adultery when he found a flower left by his brother Osiris.
Isis and Nephthys were very close despite Nephthys' alleged infidelity with Osiris (the husband of Isis) and her marriage to Set (the murderer of Osiris). Nephthys protected the body of Osirisand supported Isis as she tried to resurrect him. The goddesses are so similar in appearance that only their headdresses can distinguish them and they always appear together in funerary scenes. Together Isis and Nephthys could be said to represent day and night, life and death, growth and decay. In Heliopolis, Isis and Nephthys were represented by two virginal priestesses who shaved off all of their body hair and were ritually pure.
Nephthys was usually depicted as a woman with the hieroglyphs of her name (a basket on top of the glyph representing the plan of an estate) on her head. She could also be depicted as a mourning woman, and her hair was compared to the strips of cloth used in mummification. She also occasionally appears as a hawk, a kite or a winged goddess in her role as a protector of the dead. Her major centers of worships were Heliopolis (Iunu, in the 13th Nome of Lower Egypt), Senu, Hebet, (Behbit), Per-mert, Re-nefert, Het-sekhem, Het-Khas, Ta-kehset, and Diospolites.
KHEPRI
Khepri (Kheper, Khepera, Chepri, Khephir) was associated with the scarab or dung beetle (Scarabaeus sacer), making him one of the most famous insect gods. The Egyptians watched the scarab beetle rolling dung into a ball and pushing it along the ground to its burrow. The Egyptians made a connection between the movement of the sun across the sky and the movement of the ball of dung pushed by the beetle. The solar connection was enhanced by the fact that the scarab has antenna on its head and when the scarab pushed a ball of dung along the ground, the ball would sit between the antenna in a way that was reminiscent of the solar disc flanked by a pair of horns which was worn by many deities.
One myth suggested that Khepri pushed the sun across the sky (rather than the sun travelling on the back of a bovine goddess like Nut or Hathor or travelling on a boat). Khepri was often depicted pushing the sun ahead of him and it was thought that this movement was constant. Every night, Khepri would push the sun down into the underworld, and every morning the sun would again emerge and travel across the sky. The word "kheper" means "to emerge" or "to come into being".
The female scarab would lay her eggs in the burrow with the dung and her young would feed on the dung until they were ready to emerge. The Egyptians, however, believed that the young scarab emerged spontaneously from the burrow as if created from nothing. Thus, like Atum, he was a self-created god.The scarab beetle also lays its eggs in carrion, leading theancient Egyptians to speculate that those scarab beetles were created from dead matter. As a result, Khepri was strongly associated with rebirth, renewal, and resurrection.
He was given a central role in the "book of the dead" ("the book of coming forth by day") and the "amduat" ("the book of that which is in the underworld" or "the book of the secret chamber") and scarab amulets were placed over the heart of the deceased during the mummification ritual. These "heart scarabs" were meant to be weighed against the feather of Ma´at (truth) during the final judgement. Scarabs were often inscribed with a spell from the Book of the Dead which instructed their heart .. "do not stand as a witness against me."
Khepri was soon seen as an aspect of the sun itself, in particular the sun at day break - when it "emerged" from theunderworld. He was closely associated with Atum (the creator god), Nefertum (literally "young Atum" or "beautiful Atum") and Ra (who absorbed many of Atum's attributes). Khepri was the emerging sun, Nefertum was the new born sun, Ra was the sun during the day, and Atum was the setting sun. in later funerary texts, Atum and Khepri merged into a ram-headed beetle who was the ultimate expression of the power of life over death.
He is first mentioned in the Pyramid Texts but may well have been well known for some time before that because crude scarabs have been recovered which date from the Neolithic period (7000-5000 BC). Khepri's popularity was at its height during the New Kingdom.
One myth suggested that Khepri pushed the sun across the sky (rather than the sun travelling on the back of a bovine goddess like Nut or Hathor or travelling on a boat). Khepri was often depicted pushing the sun ahead of him and it was thought that this movement was constant. Every night, Khepri would push the sun down into the underworld, and every morning the sun would again emerge and travel across the sky. The word "kheper" means "to emerge" or "to come into being".
The female scarab would lay her eggs in the burrow with the dung and her young would feed on the dung until they were ready to emerge. The Egyptians, however, believed that the young scarab emerged spontaneously from the burrow as if created from nothing. Thus, like Atum, he was a self-created god.The scarab beetle also lays its eggs in carrion, leading theancient Egyptians to speculate that those scarab beetles were created from dead matter. As a result, Khepri was strongly associated with rebirth, renewal, and resurrection.
He was given a central role in the "book of the dead" ("the book of coming forth by day") and the "amduat" ("the book of that which is in the underworld" or "the book of the secret chamber") and scarab amulets were placed over the heart of the deceased during the mummification ritual. These "heart scarabs" were meant to be weighed against the feather of Ma´at (truth) during the final judgement. Scarabs were often inscribed with a spell from the Book of the Dead which instructed their heart .. "do not stand as a witness against me."
Khepri was soon seen as an aspect of the sun itself, in particular the sun at day break - when it "emerged" from theunderworld. He was closely associated with Atum (the creator god), Nefertum (literally "young Atum" or "beautiful Atum") and Ra (who absorbed many of Atum's attributes). Khepri was the emerging sun, Nefertum was the new born sun, Ra was the sun during the day, and Atum was the setting sun. in later funerary texts, Atum and Khepri merged into a ram-headed beetle who was the ultimate expression of the power of life over death.
He is first mentioned in the Pyramid Texts but may well have been well known for some time before that because crude scarabs have been recovered which date from the Neolithic period (7000-5000 BC). Khepri's popularity was at its height during the New Kingdom.